ON LANGUAGES
PUNCTUATION AND OTHER MARKS IN MARATHI WRITING:A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
ASHOK R. KELKAR

 

 

An Enumeration of the marks

 

The marks are listed below by groups with their names indicated against each.

 

Punctuation marks ׾ִָד֭

, comma þֻ׾ִָ -- dash ׾ֵד֭

; semicolon ׾ִָ / slash ׾֍ד֭

: colon ׾ִָ single quotation

. period ׾ִָ marks

hiatus ӛ׾ִָ ָ֟ד֭

? question mark double quotation

Ͽד֭ marks

! exclamation mark ָ֟ד֭

ָד֭ ( ) parentheses

bar ֍™

double bar { } braces ߍš

- hyphen ӵד֭ [ ] brackets ߍš

 

Reference marks Ӥד֭

* asterisk ָד֭ caret ֍֤ד֭

✝ obelisk ד֭ ˚ abbreviator Ӂד֭

double bar apostrophe

ד֭ ד֭

ditto mark -- underline, emphasis

֣׸ד֭ , ָ֬ד֭

 

Diacritic marks ד֭

virama ׾ִָ, ִֵ double dvikhanda

dvikhanda ׫ӛ,

׫ӛ, ֐ד֭ ֐ד֭

 

Layout features ӛߓ ׾ֿ

null space paragraph break

׻ ׸

word space set off

ֲ ׻ ֤ ִ

 

Historical observations

 

Marathi makes use of the Devanagari script, but in the writing system, out of the marks enumerated here, only the three diacritic marks, two of the punctuation marks (namely, the bar and the double bar), and two of the reference marks (namely, the caret and the abbreviator) are traditionally Indian. The rest (inclusive of word space and paragraph break) have been borrowed from the West through English. (Incidentally, the bar, the double bar, and the caret are also found in the West.) Three of the reference marks found in English, namely, the section mark, the paragraph mark, and || the parallel mark, are not in common use in Marathi any more. In printing, the underline is replaced by the boldface (֛ ); the use of the slant font (ןָ , or Devanagari italics) is not in common use in Marathi. (An attempt to introduce hairline-space in Marathi did not catch on. The 19th-century attempt to introduce the equivalent of capitals in Marathi, namely, the use of the large boldface for the initial letter, failed to catch on.) The actual use of the borrowed marks does not wholly coincide with the corresponding use in the West as found in English. Finally, it may be observed that the indigenous use of : for indicating the end of a sentence, in enumerations, and to mark on either side certain arbitrary codes is strictly confined to Mahanubhava sect writings (and their modern printing). They term it ׭֭.

 

The Principles of punctuation

 

Punctuation marks attempt to symbolize not systematically but in a rough and ready manner one or more of the following :

 

(1)         Phonological features of connected speech (word accent and word juncture, sentence accent, sentence tone, and sentence juncture, speech interruption);

 

(2)         Grammatical features (the structure and function of the word, the phrase, and the syntactical levels).

 

(3)         Semantic features (at the lexical and the syntactical levels).

 

Thus, a period at the end of a statement or command indicates at the same time the falling sentence tone, the final sentence juncture, the sentence as a grammatical unit, and the absence of interrogative or exclamatory senses. The semantic factor ensures that the writers communicative intent (׾־ց) also has some free play in selecting this or that mark or the absence of any mark for that matter.

 

In the detailed application of these three principles the following constraints are observed :

 

(1)         Sequences of punctuation and/or reference marks are avoided as much as possible;

 

(2)         When the situation offers a choice between a weaker and a stronger mark, the weaker mark is chosen as much as possible sometimes the weakest available mark being null punctuation (that is, the absence of any punctuation mark typically realized as word space);

 

(3)         However, the stronger mark in favoured in the interests of clarity (as when a novel or ambiguous expression is used);

 

(4)         As a rule, weaker-than-normal or light punctuation is favoured in legal documents, poetry, sacred discourse, colloquial dialogue, display matter such as advertisements, and reference material such as directories (incidentally, heavy punctuation is not favoured in Marathi).

 

 

Situation-wise selection of punctuation

 

The selection of punctuation may be formulated in the form of rules that lead us from a type of situation to the marks available for selection and their respective functions in that situation.

 

1. At the end of a sentence.

 

1.1.    If the sentence is the whole of a question or its last portion, then use---

 

(a)    an exclamation mark to convey strong insistence or emotion;

(b)   a question mark in its absence.

Otherwise rule 2 or 4.1 applies.

 

ֵ ֐ָ !

ֵ ֻ ! !

? ? ָ ־?

֭ ׾ָ֓ ?

" ?", ֭ ׾ָ֓.

ӲևԻ ֟ ם ן֣ ָ ֻ֟?

ם ֭ ׾ָ֓.

ֻ ֗ ־, ։, .

 

Note that in the last two examples the question ם or ։ is neither a whole sentence nor the last portion of a sentence.

 

1.2.    If the sentence is the whole of a command, a call, or a wish or its last portion, then use

(a)    an exclamation mark to convey strong insistence or emotion;

(b)   a period in its absence.

Otherwise, rule 2 or 4.1 applies.

 

!

֐ ֐ ㇵ ֻ !

և !

!

. ֡ ֓.

֭ , ֡ ֓.

" . ֡ ֓", ֭ .

֕֓ ֡ ֻ ӓ .

և.

"և" ֻ.

֭ .

־ ֻ ִ֕ ָ ײ֑֛ .

 

1.3.    If the sentence is an exclamation, or greeting then use

 

(a)    a period to convey reticence;

(b) an exclamation mark in its absence.

 

ֻ, "ֲ."

" !", ֻ.

! ֻ.

ֻ, "ֲ !"

ִÍָ !

 

1.4.    If the sentence is the whole of a statement or its last portion, then use

 

(a) an exclamation mark to convey strong insistence or irony or wish or emotion;

(b) a period in its absence.

Otherwise, rule 2 or 4.1 applies.

 

ֵ ԯ֝ !

פֳָ ֌ ֐ָ !

֭ ֭ !

֟ ֻ !

" ?" "֝֟ !"

" ?" "ֻ֭."

֕ ֐ָ !

ֻ ָ ׍ ָ Ի !

ӲևԻ . ָ߁֚. ֐ ָ ֻ.

֭ ָ߁֚.

ָ߁֚ ֭ אֻ֟.

ֵ ԯ֝ ־֓ ֻ ֟ .

֓ ևֿ -- ָ פ ֻ ֻ -- ӛ

ֻ.

 

2.                  At a provisional end of the sentence that is followed by another sentence with or without a linking expression.

 

2.1.            If the two sentences are of more or less equal weight (the second being a continuation, a counterposing, an explanation, a qualification, an implication, an application, or the like), then use (at the end of the first sentence)

 

(a) a colon conveying weak linkage;

(b) a semicolon conveying not so weak linkage;

(c) a comma conveying rather strong linkage;

(d) null punctuation conveying very strong linkage;

 

Otherwise, rule 1 applies (after the first sentence).

 

Note : The presence of the linking expressions ם, , ׍, ֕ between the two sentences (or their presence later in a series) or of shared elements between the sentences tends to make for stronger linkage. The sentences being longer or their weight being more nearly equal or the absence of any linking expression tends to make for weaker linkage.

 

ӲևԻ . ֐ӓ ֻ. (Rule 1 applies.)

ӲևԻ : Ӵ֟ ־.

ӲևԻ ; ֻ֓ ָ ֻ.

ӲևԻ þ֟ք ; ִ ֻ.

ϣִ ֻ, ӟָ ֓ ֵ֍ ֻ, ם

֙ ֓ ֐ ֻ.

, ֻ, ִֻ ֐.

ӲևԻ , ָ Ӳ ֝֏ ָ .

ם ֵ ?

.

.

! !

 

2.2. If the second sentence is of much less weight (being an added detail or example, a detail withheld temporarily to enhance suspense, an afterthought, a call, an exclamation, a greeting, an end-shifted element, or the like), then use (at the end of the first sentence)

 

(a) a dash conveying very weak linkage;

(b) a comma conveying rather weak linkage;

(c) null punctuation conveying strong linkage

(with rule 1 applying after the second sentence).

Otherwise, rule 1 applies (after the first sentence).

 

ӲևԻ . ֤ ֿ֣֯ !

ӲևԻ -- ֻ ִ ֻ֙־ָ.

ӲևԻ , ו־֓ Ӳև ֵֻ !

ֻ ֓ ։ ֛ .

ӲևԻ և.

? (The question proper ends after .)

 

֍ ֭ !

֯֝ , ִÍָ.

֓ ։ ֻ -- ֿ, ִָ, ϵ֐ ך֝.

߭ ֓ : ֿ, ִָ, ם ϵ֐.

 

2.3. If the first sentence is of much less weight (being an anticipatory summary, a call, an exclamation, a greeting, a scene-setting details, a heading, a front shifted element, the speaker index in a dialogue, or the like), then use (at the end of the first element)--

 

(a) a colon conveying very weak linkage;

(b) a dash conveying very weak linkage;

(c) a comma conveying rather weak linkage;

(d) null punctuation conveying strong linkage

Otherwise, rule 1 applies (after the first sentence).

 

Note : The use of a colon followed by a dash in place of the colon by itself in this situation is now old-fashioned.

 

. ß֍ ֻ ֕֓ . (Rule 1 applies.)

ָ ! ֭ ֐ אֻ֟ ֻ.

ӓ : 140 יߙ, ֭֕ 45 ׍.

ן : ֟߻ Í ֚

. (Old-fashioned) : ן :--

ׯϵ ֵֿ : ֡ ״ֻ, ֯֝ אֻ֟֯ϴ֝

և ֍ ?

Ӥ ֭ !

ִÍָ, .

ָ Ӑֵ֓ ָ -- ָ߁ ֌ ֯ ֵֻ.

, ֕ .

֓ -- ֿ Ӑ ֟.

, ֻ ֵ֓ .

և, ֻ ֵ֓ .

ָ߁֚ ӲևԻ .

ָ߁֚ ӲևԻ.

ֿ, ִָ, ϵ֐ -- ֐ ։ ֻ.

ֿ߲և : , ?

ֲֳִ֟և : ֭֟ ֻ .

׿ָ־ ָ ֓֍.

 

3. At the end of an element within a sentence that is followed by another element within the same sentence.

 

3.1.    With the two adjacent elements performing distinct functions in that sentence.

 

3.1.1. If both the elements are strongly integrated within the sentence, then use (after the first element)--

 

(a) a comma conveying slightly less strong linkage;

(b) null punctuation otherwise.

 

Note: Typically, the two adjacent elements are: subject and verb, object and verb, manner expression and verb, complement and verb, nonfinite verbal element and its auxiliary verbal element, restrictive qualifier and head, connective and connected, negative and negated, question-marker and question-marked, axis and postposition, head and emphatic clitic. In the case of the last two pairs of adjacent elements null punctuation is typically realized as null space rather than word space.

 

" ӲևԻ " ֻ.

ֻ, " ӲևԻ ." (With the object of the verb end-shifted.)

" ӲևԻ " ֻ . (With the object and the verb front shifted.)

֭ ן֓ ּ ֍ ֻ .

Í ׯ ּ .

Ӥ֓ Ӵ֭ Ӳև ָָ .

־ ֙ ?

֭ ֻ֯ ִ ײֲ֭֙ ֍ .

֟߻ ֬֯֍ ֻ֍ ӭ

.

. . ֻ, ֬֯֍, ӭ

ß֍ ׻ .

ӓ־ָ ׿֌ ß֍ ֕ ֜.

ם

Ӛ ׍ ׯ־ֻ.

ֻ ׭.

֟ ןֵ.

ןֵ .

Ӿ ?

֐ӓ ֚ (Or : ֐ӓ֚)

֐ӓ ֚.

ֻ֍ (Or : ֻ֍.)

ֻ֍. (Not : ֻ֍ .)

ӓ֓ ֚. (Or : ӓ֚֓.)

ӓ . (Or : ӓֆ.)

 

3.1.2. If one or both the elements are weakly integrated within the sentence, then use (after the first element)--

 

(a) a comma conveying weak integration;

(b) null punctuation conveying somewhat less weak integration.

 

Note : Typically, the weakly integrated element is the circumstantial expression (indicative of location, time when, or the like) or the adsentential expression (commenting on the fact or linking it to the previously conveyed fact or the like).

ָ ֓ ։ ֛, ָ ָ .

֛־ָ Ի.

֓ ։ ֛ ־ ֐ֻ.

Ӵ֟ ֻ ™ אֻ֟.

ו֍, ֻ .

ו֍ ֻ .

֛ӛ ֝, ӟ֯֝ ֐ָ , ֐

֕ ֑֟ .

֌ߓ Ӳև Ի.

֌ߓ Ӳև Ի.

ָָ ׾ָ֓ , ֯֝ ֵ֓ և ֵ.

 

3.2. With the two adjacent elements performing identical functions in that sentence.

 

3.2.1.        If the elements enter into a nesting construction (conveying an ascending or descending series.), then use (after the first element.)

(a) a colon or a period or a hyphen or a desk or a slash or a bar conveying weak linkage;

(b) a comma conveying rather strong linkage;

(c) null punctuation conveying very strong linkage.

 

Note: Typically, the series of two or more elements constitute qualifiers that are successively closer to the head, or time or place or naming expressions that are successively less inclusive or successively more inclusive.

: ӛ 2 : ㌟ 1 : 3. (Or: 2:1:3. Or: 2.1.3. Or:2-1-3.

Or:2/1/3.)

׭ִֵ 3 .

׭ִֵ 3.1.2.

12/4 ֵָ֝ , 411030, ָ™ ֕, ָ.

(Note the null punctuation before ֵָ֝ and after ) In place of 12/4 the following is also possible12/4.)

3 ֵ, 4 ֝, 6 .

׾־ָ ָߏ ־ ָ֭ 1989 . (Or: ׾־ָ ָߏ 22.01.1989 .)

֟־ ָ֭ߟ 㝵ֻ և ָ ִ ֐֝ ִֻ .

ֵָ֝ ؾ֤ ֻ֍. (Here the middle name has a patronymic force.)

ָ™ ׸֤, .

ӓ ֚ حֲ֓ ֛.

 

3.2.2. If the elements enter into an enumerative construction conveying a co-referring, converging, reciprocating, or equipollent group, then use (after the first element)--

(a) a semicolon conveying weak linkage;

(b) a comma conveying rather strong linkage;

(c) null punctuation conveying very strong linkage.

 

Note: The presence of the linking expressions ם, , ؍ makes the linkage very strong except where the second element is the closing item in a group of three or more that has otherwise no linking expressions. When the group stands as an axis to a postposition and has no linking expressions, the linkage is deemed very strong and realized as null space.

 

(1) 㻵֓ ֟, ֻ֭֍, ם ָ. (But : ֓ ֟ ֝և ֻ֭֍. A co-referring group.)

 

(2) ִ ֝ ֛ ؍ ؾ֤֐ϕ ؍ ֻ֍ִ ӓ ָ֚ ֓ ן֡ ֵֻ ã֭ . (But : ָ ֵؓ֟֡ ֲ֟ ֍ ӭ ִ֙ ֟. A co-referring group.)

(3) ־ָ, ֵ֍, ם ֐ ӭ ״ Ͼ . (A converging group.)

 

(4) ־ָ, ֵ֍, ם ֐ ӭ ֻ פ. (But: ־ָ ם ֵ֍ ӭ ֻ פ. A reciprocating group.)

 

(5) ־ָ, ֵ֍, ם ֐ ӭ ר֟ Ͼߝ ״ֻ. (A equipollent group.)

ӟ, ׭֐־, ֝ ֍Ӂ ֐.

ָ߭֓ .

֓ ם ֚ߓ .

֓ ם ֚ߓ ־.

֯֝֓ Ͽ.

, , .

, , ם .

ם ״ .

, , ؍ . (But : ߭ ؍ ָ ֝.)

, , ָ .

, ֐. (֐ of course stands for ׭ ָ.)

ם ֵָ ־ָ.

֍ ֵֻ־ָ.

֯֝ և֍ ָ ֓ ֍ þߍָ־.

־ ֝ ô֙ ֐.

ֿ, ִָ, ϵ֐ -- ־ ։ ֻ.

־ָ ׾; ֛֓ ־; ם þ֟ք֧

ֻ֟ ֭ ֵֿ֓ ߭ ָ ֻ.

 

4. At the end of any stretch followed by an interruption in linkage.

 

4.1. If the interruption is occasioned by an inserted element, then use at either end of that element--

(a) opening and closing brackets conveying a very sharp break;

(b) opening and closing parentheses conveying a rather sharp break;

(c) a dash conveying a not very sharp break;

(d) a comma conveying a mild break;

(e) null punctuation otherwise.

 

Note: Typically, the inserted element may be matter outside a quotation, a comment by another author, an indication of source, a cross-reference, a reiteration of a number, an aside, a mid-shifted element, or an alphanumeric heading. With front- insertion or end insertion, only one dash or comma is enough.

֌ ֻ, "ָֻ ֐ֻ ֐ ֵ֐ß [ִ֣] ."

׸֤ ֵ ֮ (ֵ 50.10) ״ֻ ־ֻ.

֓ ֳ֬֐ áߍָ (֍ 5 ) ֟.

" ֻ ӓ Ӥ־ ։." (ִָ)

(Or : " ֻ ֓ Ӥ־ ։." -- ִָ.)

׿־֕ߴָ֕ 1930 ֬ (?) ֻ֭.

֭ ָ֕ (ֵ Ӑ?) և ֻ.

ן֓ ֐ ֿ -- ִ֓֓ ױ֟

֟ --  פ ֻ.

ן֭ӟ ֐, ֤ ֐֓ פ ־ָ, .

" Ӳև ָֻ ֻ", ֻ, " פ ֻ."

ֵֿ֓ ߭ ָ ֻ : () Ӿָ ׾; () ֛֓ ־;

() þ֟ք֧ ֻ֟ ֭.

־ ֻ ִ֕ ָ ײ֑֛ .

(Less commonly : ֻ, ִ֕, )

 

4.2. If the interruption is occasioned by any obstacle in communication (such as stoppage of speech, hesitation, change of intention, interruption in a transcript occasioned by illegibility etc. in the original), by eloquent pausing, or by the deletion of a portion from quoted material (whether or not communication is resumed), then use after the portion preceding the interruption

 

(a) a hiatus conveying a very sharp break;

(b) a dash conveying a sharp break;

(c) a hyphen conveying a less sharp break;

(d) a comma conveying a mild break.

 

ֻ, " Ӳ...." ֜֟ ־֕ ֻ.

"֟ ־֛ ֻ?", ֻ, ", ,

...."(Open-ended enumeration.)

ִ ֝ ֛ ' ָ֭' ֟

֟֟, "֕֍ֻ ׾֟ꓵ ָָ֟ ֛껵

ӓ.... ï™ ׾ֳ֐ ֛ ....

'־֓ ָ' '㭵֓ ֍'....

(Originally : "֕֍ֻ ׾֟ꓵ ָָӟ

֛껵 ӓ ֳ֭֟ ï™ ׾ֳ֐

֛ . ֯ ֐Ի '־֓ ָ'

֭ ֐Ի '㭵֓ ֍' ־

߻."

֐ӭ Ӑ֟ -- ֝ ։ ֟

׾ֵ ֻ ֵ֜֓?

־֟ ־֟ Ӑ ֐ֻ, "ֻ --

פֻ !"

ֲ ----------.

֐ӭ, ֤ ֐ӭ Ӑ֟ .

 

4.3. If the interruption is occasioned by any deletion of elements that could be recovered from the context or by a rearrangement of elements (say, for the purpose of alphabetization), then use after the element preceding the interruption.--

 

(a) a comma conveying a rather sharp break;

(b) null punctuation conveying a mild break.

 

Note: The postponed element in a rearrangement may be optionally enclosed in parentheses rather than separated by a comma.

֭ ׿ֵ֟ ָߓ ß־ , ָ ֓

ֵ֍, . (For : ֓

ֵ֍ ׿ֵ֟ ß־

.)

֬ ׿ֵ֟ ָ ׸.

ֻ֍, ֵָ֝ ؾ֤. (Or : ֻ֍ ֵָ֝ ؾ֤.

Or: ֻ֍ (ֵָ֝ ؾ֤).)

׾֖֭, ן֍. (Or: ׾֖֭ (ן֍).)

 

4.4. When a refrain or a lemma is abbreviated to the opening word or words, the abbreviator may be used in place of ֤ (et cetera).

֟֓ ӛ/ ־߭

߾ ל ֵ֓ / Ӑ 0

0 -- ֻ Ӵֻ֬ ִ֕ߓ ָ֬ .

 

5. At the end of a word element or a word fraction.

 

5.1.            Normally an uninterrupted word should be written continuously with null space between successive graphic syllables.

 

Note: In the Devanagari script a graphic syllable is either a vowel with or without one or more consonants preceding it and with or without a co-vowel (such as an anusvara) accompanying it or with or without one more consonants with a virama accompanying the last consonant following it. The graphic syllable need not coincide with the phonic syllable.

.

™.

֦ ց֡.

֚֝.

.

! (Used for calling a cat.)

 

5.2.            Between two word elements or two numeral elements use--

 

(a) word space conveying very weak linkage;

(b) a hyphen conveying rather weak linkage;

(c) null space or fusion into a graphic syllable conveying strong linkage.

 

Note : Between numeral elements a word space may be replaced by a comma, but a hyphen can never be used.

ָ™--׸֤ (Or: ָ™ ׸֤)

ß. (Or: -ß.)

.

Ƣ. (Here the word elements are Ɵ .)

ָ ֿ߭ . (here the word

elements are , , ָ, ߭, , ,

.)

19 234. (Or: 19324. Or: 19324.)

3003 (Numbers with fewer than five

digits are not usually divided.)

40, 33, 01, 003, (Or: 40 33 01 003. (Or: 403301003.)

׭֍Ӎ 3 30 10 03. (Or: 3301003.)

33 1/3. (Not: 33 1/3.)

5.3.            When word fragments get separated.

 

5.3.1. Use the hyphen at the beginning of a word element separated deliberately form the word.

-؍ -ß. (For: -؍ -ß.)

ֲ֟- ϟֵ .

֚֚ ֲ֟ -- ֬-ϟֵ .

 

5.3.2 Use the hyphen at the end of a line when the rest of the word appears at the beginning of the next line.

 

 

Note: Elegance demands that the following be avoided at the end of a line: an excessively short word fragment, an opening quotation mark or parenthesis or brace or bracket. And also that the following be avoided at the beginning of a line: an excessively short word fragment, a closing quotation mark or parenthesis or brace or bracket, any punctuation mark (other than a hyphen or a dash or an opening quotation mark, parenthesis, brace, or bracket), an abbreviator, an apostrohe, a dvikhanda, or a double dvikhanda.

- (Not : -

™. ָ™.)

-

-ß.

 

5.3.3. Use the caret with the accidentally deleted word fragment or mark or word or words restored over the line (or in the margin in the same line).

™.

-ß

ֵָ֝ ؾ֤ ֻ֍

 

5.3.1. Use the apostrophe if attention is to be drawn to a deliberately deleted word fragment at that point. (This use of an apostrophe is not common practice in Marathi.)

'83 ֻ. (Or: 1983. Or: 83 ֻ.)

'֐ָ (Or: ֤֐ָ. Or: ֐ָ.)

 

5.3.5. Use one to three asterisks or a dash in place of a word or word fragment if attention is to be diverted from obscenity or a private matter.

* ֭֝. (Or : -- ֭֝. For:

ӛ ֭ѝ. Null space before and after.)

㗵 *** *** !

־ӭ '-- ϟ' ־֓ ׾֟ ׻ .

 

5.3.6. Use the abbreviator or period in place of the closing word fragment if attention is to be drawn to the abbreviated nature of the representation of that word.

0 '0 0 ֻ֍. (Or: . . . ֻ֍. For : ֵָ֝ ؾ֤

ֻ֍.)

׾0 0 (Or: ׾. . For: ׾ֿ ֭.)

֓ ֻ. (Colloquially for: ֓ ו֟ ֻ.)

0 ׿־0 . (Or: 0 ׿0 . For: ִ ׿־ִָ .)

 

Note that the abbreviator in this use is often written in the superior position like the degree sign thus, 0 ׿־0 .

 

6. When senses conveyed by words need to be conveyed by marks to save space or to convey technicality.

 

6.1. Use the hyphen (or the dash) to convey the range between the two points indicated.

ß 300-350 ֵ ֛߻. (For: ֿ߭ ֿ߭ ֮ ֵ.)

֭ : ֵ 800-1000-1400.

׾á ד֯֍ (1850-1882). (Or: (1850-82). For: 1850 1882. lifespan.)

[ ׿֟֯ (1674-1780). (Or: (1674-80)(Reign)

ִ 3 -3 . (Or: ִ 3 -3 . For: ִ 3 , ִ 3 .)

 

6.2. Use the slash to join alternatives.

ִ 3 /3 . (For: ִ 3 ؟־ ִ 3 .)

ß 3/4 ֵ ֛߻. (For: ߭ ؍ ָ ֵ.)

áֵ ם/؍ . (For: áֵ ؍ ؍ á߯).

 

6.3. Use the period to separate integers from decimal fractions. (The period is often called decimal point ӿ-ד֭ in this use.)

ֵ 30.00, 30.04, 0.23 (For: ֵ , ֵ 30 4, 23 respectively.)

 

6.4. Use the colon or the slash to convey a ratio and the double colon to convey a proportion.

ֵ: : : .

׭ֲӬ֓ ׾ֵ : ִ֕: Í .

ִֵԤ: 30 ׍ߙ/. (For: ִֵԤ : ֻ 30 ׍ߙ.)

 

6.5. Use the question mark by itself to convey doubt or ignorance and the exclamation mark by itself to convey wonder, amusement, or admiration.

 

7. When a specific portion of the message is to be highlighted for some reason, variously use quotation marks, the underline, or the double danda. When the question mark, the exclamation mark, the danda, or the quotation marks need to be highlighted, use doubling.

׾ '־' (֕ ־ ִֻ). (This is the pen-name of the poet.)

'' . (This is a slang expression.)

֓ '' ֻ. (This is a colloquial shortening for ו֟. )

ֻ '' ֓ ־ Ӑ. (The reference is definite at least between the interlocutors.) ֻ 'Ӳ֯߻' ։ ֻ. (This is vouching for the actual expression

spoken.)

ֻ, " Ӳ֯߻ ։ ֻ."

'ָ֟ߓ ' ׾֟ ֓֟ . (Or : 'ָ֟ߓ ' ׾֟ ֓֟ .

This is the Title of a poem.)

֭ 'ָ֟ߓ ' ֻ֓.

ָ֟ 'íß' ָ ? (This is a foreign language expression.)

ֻ ֲ֧֓ ֤ , ָ ֻ.

(There is no highlighting in this context of the Tukaram quotation which has become proverbial.)

֭֭֕ ֮ (An auspicious invocation of the Hindu god Gajanana.)

ֻ֝ . (This conveys the exclusion of any other place.)

֓ Ӑ֓ ֛ ֻ ! (This conveys intensity in respect of ֛.)

֓ וָ ! ֤ ו֟ ֻ !!

ָ ֙ Ӑ֟ ??

! !! !!! (Loudness gain and pitdi rise.)

 

8. At the end of a verse unit.

 

8.1. If the unit is a line or a stanza in metrical verse, then use a danda or a double danda at the end of it.

 

Note: If the layout is such that each verse unit begins on a fresh line, then the danda may be optionally deleted.

 

ֻ ֓ Ӥ־ ։녅

Or:

ֻ

֓ Ӥ־ ։ꅅ

Or:

ֻ

֓ Ӥ־ ֈ

 

When the writing line cannot accomadate the whole verse lone, the remaining goes into the next line but flush with the reset marzin.

 

ߓ א֭ ֦, ی֝ ,

֤ ׭ ֍׭ ԭ֕

0

 

8.2. If the unit is a line or a paragraph in non-metrical verse, then use a danda or a double danda at the end of it, if the layout is such that the verse lines appear consecutively.

 

׏֛߲ ־ָ߅ ֻօ ֐

ָօ -- .׿.

 

Or:

׏֛߲ ߟ ־ָ

ֻ ֐ ָ

-- .׿.

 

Punctuational adjustments

 

9. When more than one punctuation or reference mark need to occur in sequence, then certain adjustments need to be made.

 

9.1. A reference mark like an asterisk, an obelisk, or a double obelisk or an alphanumeric equivalent which cross-refer to a note elsewhere always follows the punctuation mark, unless it is the mark introducing the note referred to

ֻ ֓ Ӥ־ ։녅 *

Elsewhere :

*ִָ

(Likewise with, say, 2 or 2 in place of *.)

 

9.2. A period and a comma are deleted in the following punctuational sandhis.

 

(a) A period or a question mark or an exclamation mark followed by a period then the last period is deleted.

(b) A period followed by a closing quotation mark followed by a comma or a semicolon or a question mark or an exclamation mark then the first period is deleted.

(c) A period followed by a closing parenthesis or brace or bracket followed by a comma or a semicolon or a colon or a period or a word space then the first period in deleted.

(d) A comma or semicolon followed by a closing quotation mark followed by a comma then the last comma is deleted.

֭ ׾ָ֓, " ?" (And not : ֭

׾ָ֓, " ?".)

ߝ ֭ ֭ אֻ֟, " "! (And not : ֭

ӛ֭ אֻ֟, " "!)

֓ ֳ֬֐ áߍָ (֍ 5 ) ֟.

(And not : (֍ 5 .) ֟.

" Ӳև ֕ ָ ֻ;", ֻ, " ָ

ևԭ." (And not : " Ӳև ָ ֻ;",

ֻ, " ָ ևԭ.")

 

Note: Compare rule 4.1 note, last sentence.

 

10. When there are sentences or sentence elements one within the other a hierarchy among punctuation marks needs to be observed.

 

10.1. When there is inserted matter within inserted matter calling for parentheses. Braces, or brackets, parentheses appear inside brackets, braces being usually avoided. See also 4.1 the ordering. (a) to (e).

 

Note: But parentheses may appear within parentheses if there is no danger of confusion.

[: ֍ () 17 1989.]

Or

(: ֍ () 17 1989.)

ן֭ ֐-֤ ֐֓ פ, ֻ ֙ 25 , ־ָ-꛻.

 

10.2. When there is matter marked by quotation marks within matter marked by quotation marks, single and double quotation marks alternate.

֭ ־ӓ ' "֝ ցӟ ?"

' ׾֟ ֻ֓.

ָ ֤֣Ի 'ָ' ־ ם 'ָ' ־ֻ

" 'ָ' " Ӿ .

(Or: ָ ֤֣Ի "ָ" ־ . ם "ָ"

־ֻ ' "ָ" ' ־ .)

 

10.3. When there is a sentence element within a sentence element, comma breaks appear inside stretches bounded by semicolons and semicolon breaks appear inside stretches bounded by periods.

 

, ϻ֤ ־; ֙, ׾ ֵ֡ (ӯ֤).

־ֵ ֭֓ ֻ.

, , ؍ ӛ, , ֛, ִ, ؍ . (The

semicolon can be replaced by ם with null punctuation.)

10.4. When there is a word element within a word element, null space boundaries appear inside stretches bounded by hyphens and hyphen boundaries appear inside stretches bounded by word spaces.

 

ָ™ ֕ ֚ß֍-׭ٴ֟ ֍-ӿ֭

ӛ, ,

ִ־֓ ם֟֟ , ִ, ӓ ׾ָ֓

־ ֐֟.

 

10.5. When there is a verse unit within a verse unit, the danda conveys a more inside boundary than the double danda.

 

׏֛߲ ־ָ߅ ֻօ ֐

ָ.

 

Layout features

 

The use of null space and word space has already been dealt with along with the use of punctuation marks.

 

Marathi writing is in the Devanagari script and so proceeds

 

(a) graphic syllable by graphic syllable from left to right within a writing line;

(b) writing line by writing line from top to bottom within a page;

(c) page by page from front to back within a volume bound at the left margin or, less commonly, at the top.

 

Of course a column may do duty for a page and an imaginary binding may govern the page-turning practice.

 

In the absence of a binding, a portfolio or pothi takes its place.

 

At the end of a line avoid dividing a word as far as possible. If a word is at all to be divided, observe certain constraints. (See Rule 5.3.2 and note). At the end of a page, dividing a word should expecially be avoided, but a sentence may be divided. Make sure that the last line of a page is not a heading of matter at the beginning of the next page.

 

Writing lines are organized one below the other in any of the following kinds of layout

 

(a) with left justification, that is, with a left margin of fixed width;

(b) with centring, that is, with the center of each written line being equidistant from both the margins;

(c) with functional layouts such as tables, the opening/closing of a letter; dialogues, tree diagrams for genealogy or classification or the like, flow charts, map legends or fancy layouts such as non-metrical poems, concrete poems, decorative arrangements. (See Rule 2.3 the last examples).

 

Both kinds of special layouts (whether functional or fancy) may be called display layouts. Right justification does not come naturally when the script goes from left to right. Using justification on both sides is common in printing :

 

By varying the space between lines and/or by varying the width of the left margin, written matter may be organized into

 

(a) paragraphs chiefly marked by the paragraph break (typically the indentation of the opening line, less commonly the overhang of the opening line);

(b) verse paragraphs or stanzas in verse.

 

Within a paragraph with left justification some portion may be set off by beginning on a fresh line and at the same time with a left margin fixed at extra width. A set-off conveys extra highlighting of a stretch of matter (compare rule 7).

 

ֵֿ֓ ߭ ָ פ :

() Ӿָ ׾;

() ֓ ־;

() þ֟ք ִ֣Բ֧ ß־ ֭.

ӯ ϟ ָ֓ þ֟ӡ ׾ָ֓ ־ ֐.

 

Set-off matter often uses overhung rather than indented paragraph breaks.

 

Again, the break in respect of an inserted element (compare rule 4.1) may receive extra highligting by removing the inserted matter as a footnote, an endnote, a frontnote, or less commonly, a marginal note. (Consider the example under Rule 9.1.)

 

Punctuational adjustments to layout features

 

11. Quotation marks may be optionally deleted when the matter enclosed by quotation marks is placed in a set off.

 

12. Paragraph breaks within matter enclosed by quotation marks may be marked--

 

(a) by double slash or by double danda if there is no set-off;

(b) by an opening quotation mark placed at each paragraph opening if there is a set-off (there being no corresponding closing quotation mark except at the very end).

 

13. A hyphen placed at the beginning of a line because of a break at the end of the previous line (compare rule 5.3.2) may be optionally deleted.

 

-

ß

 

For :

-

-ß

 

14. A period at the end of a single line (especially if centred or set off) may be optionally deleted.

 

Note: This is typically a heading, and the single line may be centred or set off or placed flush with the left margin or overhung.

 

15. Parentheses, braces, brackets enclosing inserted matter are usually deleted if removed as a footnote, an endnote, a frontnote, or a marginal note.

 

Note: Editorial notes usually retain the brackets for avoiding confusion with the authors notes even when they are removed from the main matter.

 

16. An opening parenthesis may be optionally deleted before alphanumeric headings at the beginning of a set-off.

 

߭ ָ ֻ :

) ־ָ ׾;

) ֛֓ ־; ם

) þ֟ք֧ ֻ֟ ֭.

 

17. A comma, a semicolon, or a period at the close of a set-off in an enumerative construction may be optionally deleted.

 

߭ ָ ֻ:

) Ӿָ ׾

) ֛֓ ־

) þ֟ք֧ ֻ֟ ֭

 

18. An opening brace flush with the left margin or a closing brace flush with the right margin may be optionally deleted if the brace embraces two or more lines at the same time.

 


֍ :

. . . ֻ֍,

,

.

߭ ] r ׯϻ 1979 [ӳָ

 

19. A hiatus indicating the deletion of one or more lines in a verse quotation laid out verse line below verse line is prolonged with extra spacing and/or additional dots.

 

. ׿. ׻֟ --

׭־ӟ ָ

.... ....

.... ....

׏֛߲ ־ָ

ֻ ֐ ָ

where the following portion has been deleted from the original

ֳִָ֭ ָ֕

Ӑ .

 

Diacritic marks

 

Diacritic marks properly belong with the spelling. The conventions governing the use of virama (֭ ִ֯), dvikhanda (), and double dvikhanda (eliding of rather then after , ) in Sanskrit and therefore in Sanskrit expressions used or cited within Marathi are outside the scope of the present study. There are, however, certain special features governing their use in Marathi and these may be described here.

 

Virama is used in a special way in the following situations :

 

(a) In reformed calligraphy to avoid inconvenient or clumsy conjunct consonants;

(b) In onomatopes, exclamations, and borrowings from English to mark a long consonant at the end of a syllable after a shortened vowel.

 

֚, ֤ (For: , ֩)

. . (But: -..)

, (But: ߻, and the fully assimilated, borrwoings , ײֻ.)

, פ (Or : פ. But: ָ֓ .)

֚ . (For: ֚ ם . Not: .)

 

Dvikhanda and double dvikhanda are used in a special way unconnected with their use in Sanskrit) so as to form a closing part of the graphic syllable. In onomatopes, exclamations, emphases they confer extra length to the preceding vowel or consonant.

 

֛ ָֻ -- ֍.

ә ֻ֕ -- ֝ ֝˃ ֝˃.

ԃ ! (Compare : ! !)

!

փ ײ֑֛ !

 

With consonants, however, doubling in more common.

 

ִ ꝝ֓ ش֬ .

 

The anusvara (ӏ, ӿֵ, ӛ ), the anunasika (rare as in Ѿ, у) and the visarga (, ф) are covowels and count as letters and not as diacritic marks. The ardhachandra (, , , уу) is simply a part of the two extra vowels and associated chiefly with borrowings from English, and not a diacritic mark as such.

 

Reference marks

 

In display layouts, especially, the table and the dictionary layout, the ditto mark (or the long dash in the dictionary layout) conveys an item identical with the corresponding one immediately above; and the hiatus or the dash conveys the absence of any item in the slot where it is placed. (Compare also rule 6.5.)

 

The use of the remaining reference marks has already been dealt with.

 

 

Concluding remarks

 

The present functional analysis of marks excludes not only letters and numeral figures but also specialized technical symbols; some of which appear in non-technical contexts also (for example : + - = % ˚ ). A mention has already been made of the decimal point (.), the ratio mark (:), the proportion mark (::), the degree mark (˚). One may add here because (∵ ) and therefore (\). A special note may be made in passing of the symbols for light, one-mora and heavy, two-mora syllables the indigenous danda and dvikhanda ( and ) and the Western-borrowed breve and macron ( ⌣ and --) respectively (for short/long, light/heavy).

 

The analysis is of interest in that it takes up a somewhat neglected area in the linguistic analysis of writing systems and also in that it is likely to throw an oblique light on certain aspects of syntax.

 

The analysis is also of practical interest as a guide both to the Marathi-speaking writer or printer and to the learner of Marathi. The customary guides to punctuation do not proceed form as is the case here, but rather take up each mark by itself. They are not always very illuminating this way; indeed they sometimes mislead by imposing greater precision than actual usage warrants and by going too much by printing rather than by writing as such.

 

The present analysis deliberately neglects deviant usage (such as the use of parentheses for highlighting under rule 7) and unsuccessful or casual or fancy innovations (such as V.K. Rajawades for ) or special conventions in a specific piece of writing, or the decorative use of asterisks or the use of a line of asterisks to mark a shift of focus in a narrative).

 

COLOPHON

 

This was published in Bulletin of the Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute 50: 263-75, 1990.