It is presumptuous to claim that the investigation
and the conclusion we arrived at in this study are final and complete.
It would be also presumptuous to write a summary and conclusion to a survey
of an area which is as lively and as widely practiced. Any overall pattern that we seem to see in
the work discussed and presented here will soon look very one-sided and premature
as new ideas come forward which cause us to recast our views about what should
be covered in a topic having the title Teaching and Learning of Idiomatic Expressions
and Multi-Word Verbs of English in the context of Sudan. With that proviso, though, it seems worthwhile
to round this thesis of by pulling together the discussions made in the previous
chapters of the present study and by providing some recommendations and suggestions.
Let us start by summarizing the four chapters of the theoretical part of
this study.
In chapter one, which serves as a general introduction to the entire
thesis, I have started by indicating where does the study fit putting the teaching
and learning of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of English in the context
of Sudan in its proper perspective and setting. That is, the teaching and learning of idiomatic
expressions and multi-word verbs is part of the teaching and learning of vocabulary
(since IEX and MWV are multi-word lexical items) and the latter is part of the
teaching and learning of the English Language. Therefore, the principles, techniques, strategies
of teaching/learning vocabulary have been applied in this study to solve the problems
and eliminate the difficulties facing the teaching/learning of these two vocabulary
components in the context of Sudan. In this respect, I have touched briefly on the context of the study
(Sudan) where English is considered as Foreign Language (FL).
After delimiting the area of the study and the setting, I have mentioned
the main objectives the hypothesis and the questions of the research. This research arises out of a deep and prolonged
dissatisfaction which the researcher has felt with both the past and present status
of teaching and learning of IEX/MWV of English in the context of Sudan.
Our main objective, in this research, is, therefore, to provide those engaged
in English Language teaching and learning in Sudan with the suitable means for
pre-empting and solving the problems and difficulties of teaching and learning
of IEX and MWV of English. In carrying
out this study, we have proceeded with the following assumptions in our mind (three
interrelated hypotheses):
1.
Teaching and Learning of IEX/MWV of English in Sudan face some problems
and difficulties. Specific and concrete
instances of these obstacles are:
a. The
use of the wrong particle and/or preposition with verb – a collocation problem.
b. Not
being able to understand the multi-word verbs, which are also idiomatic expressions.
c. Generally,
problems arising from the special nature of the multi-word verbs (their difficult
structural patterns, e.g. with pronouns,
their special stress patterns and so on.
d. Unless
one knows what an idiomatic expression means, they cannot, as a rule guess its
meaning.
e. One
understands every word in a texts and still fails to grasp what the text is all
about.
f.
One does not know whether for example, the words fall out form
a unit of meaning (an idiom) or not.
2. These problems and difficulties are due to various and different
reasons such as:
a. The
absence of IEX and MWV from the syllabuses used in Sudan.
b. Lack
and dearth of relevant/suitable materials.
c. Lack
of attention and awareness with these two components of vocabulary.
d. Unfamiliarity
of the learners with these two components of vocabulary.
e. Others:
these are general causes which could be related to the general situation of the
English Language and the ELT in Sudan.
3.
The solutions of these problems and elimination of these difficulties might
reside in the following:
a. The
introduction of a separate course on idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs
of English in the tertiary level syllabuses in Sudan.
b. The
provision/selection of the necessary and relevant materials especially those which
could be used as teaching and learning aids (dictionaries, text-books, workbooks,
supplementary materials etc.)
c. To
direct the attention to the importance of these multi-word lexical items and raise
the awareness of their position and status in the English language.
d. To
familiarize the learners with those two complex and crucial but overlapping components
of vocabulary.
e. To
equip the teachers with the recent literature on the teaching and learning of
idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of English.
f.
To train the learners in the strategy of guessing the remaining
from context.
On the basis of the 3 hypothesis cited above, the following 3 broad and
general questions have been formulated:
1. What are exactly the problems/difficulties
facing the teaching/learning of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of
English in the context of Sudan?
2.
What are the possible causes of these problems/difficulties?
3.
How to solve these problems and eliminate these difficulties?
In the same chapter (chapter one), I have clarified the methodology used
in collecting the data, which is mainly empirical using questionnaires and tests,
the statistical analyses employed (the percentage statistics/the relative frequency)
and the conditions during the study. Also, in this introduction, I have shown the organization of the
thesis indicating the contents of its 7 chapters.
In chapter two, I have provided a review of the relevant literature
on the teaching/learning of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of English
in order to know how these two vocabulary components were defined, discussed,
taught and learnt so as to apply this knowledge in the context of Sudan. Overall, I have surveyed various and different
publications closely related to the topic of the study with emphasis on some of
themes/issues which have recurred continually through the area I have dealt with.
These interwoven topics are:
·
The definition(s) IEX/MWV and the relationship between
them.
·
The teaching and learning of vocabulary in context with
special reference to multi-word lexical items.
·
The teaching techniques and the learning strategies of
IEX/MWV with special emphasis and concern on the guessing-from-context strategy
and how to train the learners in the efficient use of this strategy?
This review has started with the Indian Grammarians through Saussure concluding
the chapter with a detailed review and comparison between a set of comprehensive,
systematic and standard dictionaries on IEX/MWV.
However, the following points might summarize and offer an overview of
the whole chapter.
·
The term ‘idiom’ has been around since the antiquity and
used in a variety of senses with some more frequently and consistently used than
others. In fact the practice of most grammarians
and linguistics who have chosen to study idiomatic expressions indicate concern
with the decoding aspect of idiomaticity--understanding the meanings of these
expressions.
·
Despite the quantity of material dealing with idioms,
a surprisingly large number of prominent linguistics have steered clear of idioms
almost completely.
The
concept of idiomaticity is not even mentioned in Bloomfield’s ‘Postulates’ (1926)
and no discussion of idioms is provided in “Language” (1933).
Harris in his ‘Methods in Structural Linguistics’ (1951) chooses not to
mention idiomaticity at all. As Healey
points out (1968:71) some authors avoid the term deliberately, each disliking
it for some or other reason. According
to Palmer (1938:xii) it is too broad; this view is echoed by Bolinger (1947:241),
Joos (1964:135) charges that the term is too often applied to some difficult expressions
in order to avoid describing them.
·
Outside of Language textbooks proper; special idiom dictionaries
as well as phrasal verbs ones have been in wide use. Their organization and underlying theoretical
concept of idiomaticity is similar to that found in the sampling language text
books, that is, phraseographical units are alphabetically intermixed with specialized
one-word items.
·
The works, we have surveyed in this chapter, show that
there are various dimensions and a considerable number of grammarians, writers,
linguistics and dictionaries compilers in the areas of idiomatic expressions and
multi-word verbs (phrasal verbs particularly): The Indian tradition eventually upholds indeterminacy of word meaning
and graded degrees of compositionality and Hockett shared with the Indian grammarians
the primary interest in “the meanings of the expressions” they are dealing with.
The “generative movement”, led off here (in this review) by Katz and Postal
with Weinreich, Fraser, and Chafe among the more important followers, describe
the syntactic deficiency in this finite class of anomalies (i.e. idioms).
Bolinger,
Ruhl and Mitchell, are all concerned with ‘semantics’ more than syntax, sentence
meaning rather than word meaning…with the pervasiveness of idiomaticity throughout
language.
The stratificational
grammar in this review, is represented by Adam Makkai (1972) who deals with idiomatic
expressions and phrasal verbs in detail.
·
However, the direct concern and treatment of teaching
and learning of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of English, in general,
is manifested in Michael Wallace, 1982 (who devoted a whole chapter (Ch.8) in
his book ‘Teaching Vocabulary’ to Idioms and Multi-Words) and Ronald E.Feare,
1980 in his workbook ‘Practice with Idioms’, among other useful vocabulary books
and reference. Moreover, there are some
of the specialized idiom-dictionaries and phrasal verbs ones which are discussed
in detail in this review besides an attempt to compare some of them.
The general theme of these dictionaries is that the entries found in them
are not ordinary vocabulary. Oxford Dictionary
of Phrasal Verbs/Oxford dictionary of English Idioms: Collins COBUILD Dictionary
of Phrasal Verbs/Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms and Cambridge International
Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs/Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms are illustrative.
In spite of the large amount of literature on idiomatic expressions and
multi-word verbs of English, unfortunately no research has been carried out on
the teaching and learning of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of English
in the context of Sudan. Therefore, the
present study attempts to fill a gap and provide a starting point for further
research on this topic.
In chapter three, an attempt has been made to show and examine the
position/status and the importance of IEX/MWV covering the following sub-headings:
·
The position of IEX/MWV of English in Language in general
and across the language skills.
·
The place of IEX/MWV in the English language syllabuses
used in Sudan universities.
·
How the students actually learn these multi-word lexical
items in Sudan universities.
·
The importance of IEX/MWV for the native speaker and the
learner.
In
respect of the 1st issue, we have demonstrated that:
a)
IEX/MWV are not a separate part of the language, which one can choose either
to use or to omit, but they form an essential part of the vocabulary of English.
b) They are common in every language and
without command IEX/MWV students cannot truly feel comfortable and confident in
their effort to master English thoroughly.
c) IEX/MWV are not something special or sub-standard
they are a vital part of the standard language and as such they can hardly be
avoided.
Regarding
the second issue, we have showed that the position of these multi-word lexical
items, in the existing syllabuses at the departments of English in Sudan universities,
is marginal. The examining of the syllabuses
documents revealed that these two vocabulary components are not given the attention
and concern they deserved, hence, they do not appear as contents of any course
or as a separate course. As for the third issue (the question
How the students actually learn these multi-word lexical items in Sudan universities),
the answer to this question depends mainly on the status of these two vocabulary
components in the syllabuses and ass we have seen from the foregoing discussion
that they were not given the attention and place they deserve. Therefore, the teaching and learning of these lexical units were
not catered for explicitly and intentionally in Sudan universities. However, their teaching and learning did not
take place systematically except in rare instances where phrasal verbs were treated
in some courses especially I grammar courses and this happen often through translation,
memorization of lists of these verbs (in alphabetical order without consideration
of semantic (meaning) grouping – depending only on the form of the word) and inadequate
use of dictionaries (often using bi-lingual ones). The use of dictionaries as
teaching and learning aid is limited since the learners think that they know these
expressions and verbal combinations because they are made of easy words/constituents:
e.g. put, up and with; look, up and to and so on.
So they do not look up those words in dictionaries. A final crucial point to mention, here about the teaching and learning
of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verb is that whenever they were treated
they were taught and tried to be learnt out of context i.e., in isolation.
Concerning the last issue in this chapter, (the importance of IEX/MWV
of English for the native speaker and the learner), the discussion leads us to
conclude that IEX and MWV are important for the native speaker since the knowledge
and use of these multi-word lexical items serve as distinctive features of his
command of the language. These two vocabulary
components are also important for the learner since their knowledge and use are
indications of his mastery of the language.
In chapter four, I have dealt with the linguistic aspect(s) of IEX/MWV.
These multi-word lexical units have been surveyed and discussed considering
the following levels; orthographical/phonological, grammatical (syntactic/morphological)
and stylistic. Moreover, there has been an attempt to provide a semantic study
of these 2 vocabulary components in some detail, covering the headings below:
·
Definition(s) of IEX/MWV and the relation between them.
·
A lexico-semantic study.
In
addition to the above linguistic survey and study, we have presented, in this
chapter, a contrast and comparison of these multi-word lexical items with the
native speech of the Sudanese learners in terms of metaphors and proverbs, colloquial
(informal) language and slang.
However, the linguistic study of IEX/MWV revealed that they have their
special linguistic properties. At the
phonological level, IEX/MWV follow the general phonological principles and rules
of the English phonology with the exception of the stress and accent in some verbal
combinations. They have special stress
patterns as the following examples demonstrate. In normal speech particles/prepositions
are not usually given stress but with phrasal verbs the particle normally receives
stress. Compare
Look
for that number – that’s the number to ‘Look for.
Call
up that number – that’s the number to ‘call’ up.
Also,
in respect of MWV stress, it is worth mentioning that the particle in verbal combination
is normally stressed and, in final position, bears the nuclear tone, whereas the
preposition in verbal constructions is normally unstressed and has the ‘tail’
of the nuclear tone on the “lexical verb only”
He called ‘up the man – the man was called up.
He
‘called on the man – the man was ‘called on.
As for the orthographical level, in general, idiomatic expressions
and multi-word verbs confine to the general spelling conventions of English. However, there are some exceptions namely those
cases where multi-word verbs are transformed to nominalized forms, adjectival
forms which have varieties of spelling (hyphenated, solid form (written as one
word) or unlinked forms) In nominalized
forms, there is considerable difference regarding spelling and punctuation: the
choice of solid (= Linked form) e.g. flypast, unlinked form a look around or a
hyphenated one a look-round.
Regarding the nominalized form which has the pattern particle + verb, it
is important to mention that the British and American practice is to write them
fully joined as in offprint; while some nouns exist in two forms (linked and hyphenated)
in British.
Other examples
of writing conventions of multi-word verbs are:
make
up (verb), make-up(noun)
break
down (verb), breakdown (noun).
In
adjective transform, one notes the following spelling/punctuation as they appeared
in the examples below:
He glanced through the article „ The
quickly glanced-through article….
He eagerly looked forward to his retirement
„
His eagerly looked-forward-to retirement.
The second major section in Chapter 4, deals with the grammatical aspect
of IEX/MWV. Here, an attempt has been
made to provide the reader with a general about the syntax and morphology of these
two vocabulary components is essential for a variety of reasons. It enables the reader to compare like with
like and to build up a general categorization of IEX/MWV. It is also important for the reader to be able
to locate and identify the exact point or points in IEX/MWV at which lexical choice
can operate. The syntactic of the parts to be whole would be made explicit. And
finally, how the grammar of an IEX can be altered by how idiomatic it is.
The grammatical behaviour of MWV cold be summarized by presenting the following
overview of the grammatical patterns in which these verbal combinations occur
as well as their transformations. MWV
can function in one or more of six simple, active sentence patterns. These basic
patterns can be divided into two groups according to transitivity (i.e. according
to whether or not they contain a direct object). Intransitive sentences are labeled [V] and
transitive sentences {Vn]. Within each
of [V] and [Vn], the sentence patterns are further subdivided into [P], [Pr] and
[P.Pr] according to whether they contain a particle, a preposition, or a particle
and a preposition.
The
whole system of six basic patterns can be represented schematically, and illustrated,
as follows:
Intransitive Transitive
Particle [Vp] [Vn.P]
Preposition [Vpr] [Vn.pr]
Particle
+ Preposition [Vp.pr] [Vn.p.pr]
[Vp] The electricity supply went off
[Vpr] We were backing on a change of heart.
[Vp.pr] The committee fall back on an earlier plan.
[Vn.P] The awful food turns people off.
[Vn.pr] Peter foists all his problems on his unfortunate friends.
[Vn.p.pr] You can put the shortage down to bad planning.
As for the grammatical aspect of idiomatic expressions, the following point
should be emphasized. The grammatical
behaviour of IEX reminded us of the enormous structural variety of English expressions.
The patterns deal with in this respect are found in:
·
Phrase pattern – a bargain basement, easy on the eye,
in the nick of time.
·
Subject-less clause patterns – cut one’s losses, paint
the town red, pay sb a compliment and
·
Simple or complex sentence patterns – one swallow does
not make a summer, give sb at inch and he (will)’ll take a mile.
This is to give but small sample of the great range of these construction(s)
types. The spread is considerably, yet they can be classified under 2 general
headings: Phrase Idioms and Clause Idioms. Within
these major groupings are several dominant sub-categories:
…The
most common clause patterns spanned by idioms, for instance, are the following:
Verb
+ complement
go berserk
Verb
+ direct object ease
sb’s conscience / mind
Verb
+ direct object + complement paint the town red
Verb
+ indirect object + direct object
do sb credit
Verb
+ direct object + adjunct take sth amiss
While the most commonly occurring phrase patterns are these :
Noun
phrase
a crashing bore
Adjective
phrase
free with one’s money etc.
Prepositional
phrase in the nick of time
Adverbial
phrase
as often as not
In our survey of the grammatical behaviour of IEX/MWV we have also discussed
the distinction between idiomatic multi-word verbs (phrasal verbs) and non-idiomatic
ones (literal verbal combinations) and the influence of this distinction on the
grammar of MWV. The fact that a particular
combination of verb + particle, for example,
is idiomatic need not affect its grammar. The combination make up as used in she made
up her face is quite clearly an idiom (a unit of meaning). Yet the grammar of
the idiomatic make up is similar in many respects to the grammar of the non-idiomatic
carry away. For instance, the direct object
can be changed around in both cases:
She made up her face / She made her face up.
Bill carried away the rubbish / Bill carried the rubbish away.
Similarly, it is equally possible to move the particle to the front and
the subject to the end of the sentence whether you use come down idiomatically
(The prices came down / Down came the prices) or non-idiomatically (The ceiling
came down / Down came the ceiling).
After having provided a general linguistic survey of IEX/MWV at the phonological
/ orthographical and the grammatical levels, we have offered in subsequent paragraphs
a treatment of the stylistic aspect of these multi-word lexical units.
In these paragraphs, we have tried to provide the reader with a general
description of the stylistic behaviour of idiomatic expressions and multi-word
verbs of English. However, in this section, it might be useful
recap the following points which will be of particular interest to advanced foreign
students and teachers:
Regarding the stylistic behaviour of multi-word verbs the following
points may be mentioned:
·
We should note that it is impossible to assign fixed stylistic
values to most items which call for a marking of some kind.
The
boundary between ‘formula’ and ‘informal’ usage is constantly shifting, and the
conventions observed by individual speakers and writers differ very considerably.
·
It is often said that multi-word verbs tend to be rather
‘colloquial’ or ‘informal’, and more appropriate to spoken English than written,
and even that it is better to avoid them and choose single-word equivalents or
synonyms instead. Yet in many cases multi-word
verbs and their synonyms have different ranges of use, meaning, or collocation,
so that a single-word synonym cannot be substituted for a multi-word verb. Single
word synonyms are much more formal in style than multi-word verbs, so that they
seem out of place in many contexts, and students using them run the risk of sounding
pompous or just unnatural.
This
stylistic difference between single-word verb and its equivalent multi-word verb
could be shown by presenting and examining the following examples:
Lucy was brought up by her grand parents
and educated at the local secondary schools.
What time are you planning to turn up.
(multi-word verb: informal)
Please let us know when you plan to arrive? (single-word verb more formal)
Note
that in the first example, ‘bring up’ is mostly used for the moral and social
training that children receive at home while ‘educate’ is used for the intellectual
and cultural training that people get at school and university.
As for the stylistic behaviour of IEX, the 2 points below
could be emphasized:
·
The first point focuses on the feature that proverbs and
catchphrases may be structurally shortened for a variety of reasons and with a
number of effects. Traditional sayings
of a given structural type tend to be used in a narrow and stereotyped set of
functions. Thus a stitch in time saves
nine and the early bird catches the worm are typically used to comment approvingly
on timely or judicious action or to reinforce a recommendation.
Often it will be felt sufficient to hint at the whole by the use of a part,
as in such utterances, as ‘A stitch in time, you know!
Sometimes,
the fragment will take on a life of its own as a phrase idiom, as is the case
with an early bird. This co-exists in
present-day usage alongside the saying from which it originated.
·
A second pint is the creation of idiomatic expressions
and the achievement of humorous effects by the manipulations of them, normally
regarded as fixed calls fro a degree of cultural or literary awareness possessed
only by mature native speakers of the language. Consider in this respect the following catchphrases:
The
buck stops here and if you can’t stand the heat, get out of the kitchen which
were first spoken by the Late President Truman; and their association with him,
combined with the vigour and freshness of his language, ensured that they were
taken up and repeated more widely. As
in many similar cases, both the function and form of these catchphrases are varied
from time to time, as the following quotation from an article on the Vietnam war
makes clear:
The harsh
truth is that the buck started here (i.e. in the US) and that is stops here as
well. This example of nonce variations
in an expression whose original form is well-known brings us to the point that
sentence idioms in particular are commonly refashioned by native speakers to achieve
a variety of striking effects.
Another major concern of this chapter is a detailed semantic study of
IEX/MWV. A considerable space and time have been devoted
to the semantic aspect of these multi-word lexical items since idiomaticity is
largely considered as a semantic matter. In dealing with the semantic properties of
these two vocabulary components, we have tried to cover some basic issues such
as:
·
The definition(s) of IEX/MWV and the relation between
them
·
Meaning of IEX/MWV
·
Idiomaticity or non-idiomaticity
·
Collocation
·
Synonyms/antonyms and other semantic relations.
For the definition(s) of IEX/MWV, let us start by those of the IEX. After examining different and various definitions
of this vocabulary component, we have opted for/singled out the following ones:
The comprehensive definition which is articulated in Cowie et. al 1993:
‘The best-known approach to the definition of idiomaticity, and one which
linguists as well as dictionary-makers have helped to popularize, fastens on the
difficulty on interpreting idioms in terms of the meanings of their constituent
words. Definitions such as the following
are representative of this approach:
…groups of words with set meanings that cannot be calculated by adding
up the separate meanings of the parts.
…peculiarity of phraseology…having meaning not deducible from those of
the separate words.
However, defining idioms in a way which throws emphasis on ease or difficulty
of interpretation leaves a great deal unsaid…
…an approach based simply on the semantic opaqueness (or transparency)
of whole combinations yield a very small class of idioms. It leaves out of account, for example, an important group of expressions
which have figurative meanings (in terms, of the whole combination in each case)
but which also keep a current literal interpretation. Among such ‘figurative idioms; are catch fire
and close rank. There is other evidence,
too, especially the fact that a small number of words can be substituted in expressions
often regarded as opaque (consider burn one’s boats or bridges), that idioms are
not divided as a mall water – tight category from non-idioms but are related to
them along a scale or continuum.
A view of idiomaticity which does full justice to the rich diversity
of word-combinations in English must recognize that the meaning of a combination
may be related to those of its components in a variety of ways, and must take
account also of the possibility of internal variation, or substitution of part
for part. The application of both
criteria together produces a complex categorization:
i.
Pure idioms : Though discussions of idiomaticity at both
a technical and non-technical level are usually limited to the type illustrated
by blow the gaff and kick the bucket (surely the most often quoted idiom of all),
idioms in the strict sense comprise only one, and certainly not the largest, a
of a spectrum of related categories. Historically, pure idioms form the end point of a process by which
word-combinations first establish themselves through constant re-use, then undergo-figurative
extension and finally petrify or congeal.
ii.
Figurative idioms : This category has already been identified. It is idiomatic in the sense that variation
is seldom found (though note act that part or role; a close, narrow shave) and
pronoun substitution unlikely (though consider Bill had a narrow shave and Fred
an even narrower one). The merging of
this group into that of pure idioms is illustrated by such expressions as beat
one’s breast and (again) burn one’s boats. The literal senses of these expressions
do not survive alongside their figurative ones in normal, everyday use and for
some speakers they may indeed be unrelatable. For such speakers these expressions fall into
category of pure idioms.
iii.
Restricted Collocations : In such combinations, sometimes referred to
as ‘semi-idioms’, one word (i.e., in the case of two-word expressions) has a figurative
sense not found outside that limited context. The other element appears in a familiar, literal
sense (cf. the verb and noun, respectively, in jog one’s/sb’s memory and the adjective
and noun in a blind alley). Some members
of this category allow a degree of lexical variation (consider, for instance,
a cardinal error, sin, virtue, grace), and in this respect ‘restricted’ collocations
resemble ‘open’ ones. Another point of similarity is that the ‘literal’ element is sometimes
replaced by a pronoun’.
Cowie
et al 1993
·
Moreover, after considering the various definitions of
idiomatic expression(s) the researcher is for Wood (1981) definition which is
as follows:
‘An idiom
is a complex expression which is wholly non-compositional in meaning and wholly
non-productive in form’.
(Wood 1981:95).
In
brief, the reason for this preference is that it seems comprehensive and valid. It caters for meaning and form of these expressions.
·
The researcher also found Michael Wallace’s (1982) definition
as one of the comprehensive and working definitions:
‘…However, it could be suggested that a practical definition of idiom for
teaching purposes will contain three elements:
1. Idioms consist of more than one word;
2. Idioms are fixed collocations and
3. Idioms are semantically opaque’.
(Wallace
1982:118)
As for the definition(s) of MWV, we have considered and examined a lot
of definitions.
The
following seem adequate and valid:
·
Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary of Current English’s
Definition
‘a simple verb combined with an adverb or a preposition, or sometimes both,
to make a new verb with a meaning that is different from that of the simple verb,
e.g. go in for, win over, blow up’.
(OALDCE
1996:869)
·
A.P. Cowie and R.Mackin’s Definition (1993)
Under
the sub-heading : What is a Phrasal Verb? Cowie and Mackin, in their ‘Oxford
Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs’, provide the following definition:
‘In English, verb are often put together with short adverbs (or particles)
as in run back, put(the dish) down, warm
(the milk) up.
Verbs
often combine with prepositions too, as in come into (the room), drop (the vase)
on (the floor), translate (the play) into (French).
All
these combinations are easy to understand, because you can work out their meanings
from those of the individual verbs and particles or prepositions. (So, put the dish down means place the dish in a lower position).
But sometimes the combinations are more difficult to understand.
Look at the combination break out (verb + particle) as it is used in this
sentence: Cholera broke out in the north of the country.
In
this example, the verb break doesn’t have the meaning it has in phrases like break
a window or break a stick. And ‘out’ doesn’t
mean ‘outside in the open’. The combination
has to be understood as one unit of meaning ‘start suddenly or violently’. When a verb + particle (or a verb + preposition)
is a unit of meaning ‘start suddenly like this it is a phrasal verb.
Sometimes you will find a verb, a particle and a preposition combining
to form one unit of meaning. A well known example is ‘put up with’ (meaning
‘tolerate’). This too is a phrasal verb’.
Cowie
and Mackin 1993 (3rd impr. 1994):xi
·
M. Wallace 1982
‘A multi-word verb is a verb plus a particle (i.e. preposition or adverb),
or, sometimes a verb plus two particles, which join to form a new structural unit.
Here are some examples of multi-word verbs:
…..add
up, …take on, …work out’.
(Wallace
1982:119)
·
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English’s
definition represents one of the most adequate and comprehensive definitions of
multi-word verbs:
‘a
simple verb combined with an adverb or a preposition or sometimes both, to make
a new verb combined with an adverb or a preposition or sometimes both, to make
a new verb with a meaning that is different from that of the simple verb, e.g.
go in for, win over, blow up’.
(OALDCE
5th ed. 1995:869)
Concerning the relation between IEX/MWV, we have attempted to clarify it
as follows:
What is the relation between these two parts?
This section has provided a brief reply of some sort to this question.
In short, some idiomatic expressions are multi-word verbs particularly
those which are termed phrasal verbs. Not all idiomatic expressions are phrasal
verbs: there are other different idiomatic constructions: nominal, adjectival
and adverbial categories. One can say
that not all idiomatic expressions are multi-word verbs (there are others as indicated
above) and not all multi-word verbs are idiomatic expressions: there is another
type-beside the phrasal verbs – which is literal or non-idiomatic verbal combinations.
In the discussion of the meaning(s) of IEX/MWV, we have repeatedly
emphasized the point that these multi-word lexical items carry meaning. In this respect, I have demonstrated and shown
that MWV carry meaning, in general, and particles/prepositions, in particular,
often have meanings which contribute to a variety of verbal combinations.
I English, verbs are often put together with short adverbs (or particles),
as in run back, put (the dish) down, warm (the milk) up. Verbs often combine with
prepositions too, come into (the room), drop (the vase) on (the floor), translate
(the play) into (French). All these combinations
are easy to understand, because you can work out their meanings from those of
the individual verbs and particles or prepositions (so, put the dish down means
‘place the dish in a lower position’). But
sometimes the combinations are more difficult to understand. Look at the combination ‘break out’ (verb +
particle) as it is used in his sentence: Cholera broke out in the north of the
country. In this example, the verb break
doesn’t have the meaning it has in phrases like break a window or break a stick.
And out doesn’t mean outside in the open.
The combination has to be understood as one unit, meaning ‘start suddenly
or violently’.
The component multi-word verbs is constantly growing and changing. New combinations appear and spread. Yet combinations are rarely made on a random
basis, but form patterns which to some extent can be anticipated. Particles/prepositions often have particular
meanings which they contribute to a variety of combinations and which are productive,
that is, these fixed meanings (of particles/prepositions) are used in order to
create new combinations.
Approaching the lexico-semantic properties of idiomatic expressions,
we have started by discussing the following statements regarding meaning:
‘If
you do not know the meaning of a word or an expressions call it an idiom’.
But
idiomatic expression has meaning and one its meaning is established an idiom is
unequivocal and (provided it is used in the right context) it means the same thing
to everybody. However, the reader could
bear in mind the following points when approaching the lexico-semantic aspect
of idiomatic expressions:
1.
The meaning of an idiomatic expression is more than the aggregate of words.
2. An idiomatic expression is a mutually sense – selecting construction, where each
member has a sense that is possible only in construction with another item; an
expression which has a meaning different from the meanings of its constituents;
semantically an idiom behaves like one lexical but grammatically the constituents
behave like common words. For example:
Kick
the bucket (die); Kicked the bucket; *Kick the bucketed.
In respect of collocation, we have mentioned that combinations
of words that are natural and normal to native speakers are called collocations.
The actual nouns etc. that can combine with a particular phrasal verb are
called its collocates. (So ‘conversation, is one of the collocates
of ‘carry on’). Some of the collocates of ‘carry out’ are: ‘experiment, test,
research, investigation’ among others which can be used as direct objects of that
phrasal verb. And the collocates of ‘carry
on’ besides ‘conversation’ are ‘talk’, ‘discussion’. With ‘carry on’ it is possible to use words
that related in meaning as ‘debate’ and ‘negotiations’ (both of which are types
of discussions). A native English speaker
will know that it is a natural and normal to say carry out an investigation not
‘carry on an investigation’. On the other
hand, we normally carry on a conversation Not *carry out a conversation.
As for the collocation of IEX, we have offered the following discussion:
Here are some idioms with their meanings: Let the cat out of the bag (-reveal
a secret); lick someone’s boots (= humble oneself to gain someone’s favour); rain
cats and dogs (=rain heavily); Storm in a teacup (=fuss about something that is
not really important); Off the cuff (= not prepared before hand).
What
is it that they have in common? One could
suggest that these expressions are fixed collocations....
However, some collocations are fairly loosely related…. With idioms, this freedom of collocation is
much restricted.
Using
the examples we have noted, it would be odd to say:
They have let several out of bags (= revealed several secrets); he goes
about licking people’s sandals; yesterday it rained dogs and cats; the teacup
has just had a storm; he made an off his-cuff remarks, and so on. Generally speaking, however, idioms operate
in some ways as if they were compound words, and the number of changes that can
be made are very limited.
Regarding the sense relations of IEX, we have discussed synonymy
(a saving grace / a redeeming feature), antonymy (early on/latter on; by accident
/ by design), false friends (hold sb’s hand/hold hands) and other semantic relations.
Many multi-word verbs have synonyms which are single words but these
words are much formal e.g. bring up/educate.
Antonyms describe opposite processes such as: putting on/taking off; coming
in /going out.
An important point to mention in respect of the synonymy of multi-word
verbs is that particle and prepositions themselves have synonyms which alternate
after verbs:
Examples
are:
·
Synonymous particles: ‘about, around/round’
·
Synonymous prepositions (on, over, upon)
Idiomaticity has been touched briefly in this section. Clearly the
fact that very many verbs with particles or prepositions are used idiomatically
is the central issue that we have to deal with in mastering this important area
of the vocabulary. To highlight the distinction between idiomaticity
and non-idiomaticity of English expressions, it might be useful to consider the
following questions:
1. How can idiomaticity itself be recognized and defined?
How in practice do we decide whether a particular expression is idiomatic
or not?
2.
Is the distinction between idioms and non-idioms clear-cut, or do the two
categories shade off into each other? Where
do we draw the line between idioms and non-idioms?
3. What criteria in particular must expressions
satisfy to merit inclusion in idioms’ dictionaries?
A view of idiomaticity which does full justice to the rich diversity of
word-combinations in English must recognize that the meaning of a combination
may be related to those of its components in a variety of ways, and must take
account also of the possibility of internal variation, or substitution of part
for part.
Before rounding off chapter 4, we have compared, contrasted and related
IEX/MWV to the native speech of the Sudanese learners in terms of metaphors, saying
and proverbs, colloquial (informal) language and slang. However, the discussion has led us to the following conclusion:
The speech of Sudanese people – Colloquial Sudanese Arabic – contains idiomatic
expressions of different kinds (fixed collocations, saying/proverbs catchphrases
etc.) and these expressions are used widely by them. They are part of our subjects speech. However,
multi-word verbs are few in classical Arabic thus in Sudanese colloquial Arabic.
Therefore, the notion and the concept of the multiplicity of the words
of verbs are not clear for the majority of our subjects. The researcher himself
(helped by other native speakers) couldn’t provide more than one or two examples
of those verbal constructions from classical Arabic.
This claim is borne out by the questionnaire given to the students who
were not able to give even a couple of examples of multi-word verbs in Arabic.
Overall, the 4 previous chapters (the introduction, the literature review,
the position/status of IEX/MWV in English and the syllabuses used in Sudan and
the linguistic study of these multi-lexical items) which form the first part of
this study, serve as a theoretical background/framework for the empirical/practical
part of this research (Chapters five and six as well as the general summary and
conclusion for the whole thesis).
After having brought the salient points of the 4 chapters of the theoretical
part, we shall turn in the following pages to the 3 chapters of the practical/empirical
art. The second part mainly includes:
what are the problems/difficulties of teaching/learning of IEX/MWV of English
in the context of Sudan? And How to solve the problems and eliminate the difficulties
of teaching/learning of IEX/MWV of English in the context of Sudan?
In Chapter five, I have discussed the three elicitation techniques
which have been used at this stage i.e. before the taught course (teachers’ questionnaire,
students’ questionnaire and the pretest) to get the information about the teaching
and learning of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs in the context of Sudan.
The main objective of the tools used in the present study is to detect the problems/difficulties
facing the students as well as their teachers while dealing with these two overlapping
components of vocabulary. Moreover, the
literature review and what have been established in the theoretical background/framework
of this dissertation revealed that there are various and different obstacles which
might be encountered by the native speaker and the foreign language learner.
In this chapter, I have tried to pull together the salient points made
about the problems/ difficulties of teaching/learning these multi-word lexical
items, on the basis of the empirical data obtained in this study, supported them
as far as possible with some quotations from the relevant literature appeared
in the first part of this research. That
is, a recapitulation of the findings of the two questionnaires as well as the
pre-test given to the subjects of the present study. In what follows, let us start
by bringing together the findings of these three elicitation tools under the sub-headings:
1) findings of the teachers’ questionnaire,
2) findings of the students’ questionnaire,
3) findings/results of the pre-test.
1. The findings of the teachers’ questionnaire could be summarized
as follows:
·
Regarding the status of vocabulary, in the English syllabus(es)
used in Sudan Universities, the informants stated that it was not given the importance
and concern it deserves. As a result,
the position of the two vocabulary components (idiomatic expressions and multi-word
verbs) in these syllabuses is marginal.
·
The students are not familiar with the terms idiomatic
expressions and multi-word verbs thus they could not define them.
·
The learners are not aware of the importance and usefulness
of these multi-word verbs thus they could not define them.
·
The learners are not aware of the importance and usefulness
of these multi-word lexical elements.
·
The students avoid using idiomatic expressions and multi-word
verbs in their speech and writing.
·
The teachers’ answers bore out that the subjects of this
study have the following problems/difficulties while dealing with IEX?MWV:
o The
use of the wrong particle and/or preposition with the verb : a collocation issue.
o Not
being able to understand the MWV which are at the same time IEX.
o Generally,
problems arising from the special nature of MWV : their difficult structural patterns
(e.g. with pronouns), their special stress patterns and so on.
·
The respondents’ answers confirmed the importance of IEX/MWV
in everyday English use and for the foreign learner.
·
In respect of the obstacles facing the teaching of IEX/MWV,
the teachers mentioned the following illustrations:
o Less
attention is paid to these multi-word lexical items in the English syllabus they
are dealing with.
o Scarcity/non-availability
of the relevant materials on IEX/MWV.
o The
students’ poor knowledge of the skills of guessing the meaning from context.
o The
learners’ faulty perception of IEX/MWV.
·
The respondents’ response revealed that their students
can understand IEX/MWV if they are presented in meaningful contexts.
·
The teachers claimed that their learners confused IEX
with proverbs and colloquial English. They
have definition/perception problems.
·
Regarding the classroom methodology, the informants supported
the teaching of IEX/MWV as new items and try to encourage to guess their meaning
from situation and context
·
The teachers agreed with the statements mentioning the
usefulness and importance of these multi-word lexical items.
·
They recommended the suggested role of the learner as
an active participant in the learning/teaching process.
·
The majority of the respondents are for the introduction
of ‘a separate explicit course on IEX/MWV’ in the present English language syllabus(es)
in Sudan Universities.
2. Findings of the Students’ Questionnaire:
Summary
and Conclusions of the Students’ Profile(s): (Questions 1 – 15)
The purpose of this part of the students’ questionnaire was to elicit information
from the subjects of the study. The questions
aimed at getting information about name, sex, age, religion, marital status, state(s)
of domicile/birth place, nationality, parents’ education and occupation, mother
tongue, medium of instruction at school, other languages known, the current faculty (school),
programme and the subject of study as well as the years of study of English before
university.
The data obtained showed the following about the 100 subjects of the
study:
·
The range of the age of the students is between 22 – 25.
·
The sample is gender – representative: 52% female / 48%
male.
·
All the students are muslim.
·
Only 5% of the subjects are married. These five (students) are female: none of the
male students got married.
·
They are from the various and different States of Sudan.
·
Their birth places are distributed over the country.
·
All the students enrolled at the time of the study are
Sudanese.
·
Their parents received a reasonable education and the
majority of them are from middle class.
·
They are Arabic speaking students who did their schooling
through the mother tongue with 6 years of English as a foreign language before
joining the university level.
·
Only a few number of them know French (5%) as another
language (besides English and Arabic).
·
They are pursuing English undergraduate courses (B.A.
and Ed. / B.A.) at the Faculties of Education and Arts in Khartoum and Elneelian
universities respectively.
Overall, the subjects of the present study are homogeneous. They are representing the typical Sudanese University student of
English as a foreign language.
Summary
and Conclusion for the Second Part of the Students’ Questionnaire
(questions
16 – 27)
In the first 15 questions of the present questionnaire, we have provided
the students’ profile(s). The remaining
questions addressed the following issues:
·
The subjects’ attitude towards MWV: preference of multi-word
verbs or single-word ones.
·
The students’ ability (or lack of it) to substitute a
MWV with a SWV.
·
The difficulty/ease of understanding and substituting
a MWV with a single word one.
·
The students’ ability to use and understand IEX and MWV
in different and various settings.
·
The learners’ preference of using an English expression
rather than others.
·
The availability of IEX/MWV in the students’ mother tongue
and their translatability into English.
·
The students’ problems/difficulty in learning IEX/ and
MWV.
·
The suitable classroom methodology, materials, motivation
etc. for learning/teaching of IEX/MWV.
·
The familiarity (or non-) of learners with some references/books,
textbooks/workbooks etc.
·
The students’ feeling and attitude towards IEX and MWV
encountering and using them in speech and writing.
·
The learners’ views on the definition, perception and
awareness of the importance IEX/MWV.
·
The students’ area(s) of interests.
Below
are the findings of this part of the questionnaire:
·
The general attitude of the majority of the subjects is
for using single-word verbs rather than multi-word verbs.
·
The statistics shows that the learners have problems in
substituting a MWV with a SWV.
·
3 / 4 the subjects of this study admitted that they found
difficulty in understanding and substituting multi-word verbal combinations with
their single-word equivalents.
·
A large number of the informants (75%), in this survey,
confessed that they do not have the ability to understand and use these multi-word
lexical items in speech and writing.
·
90% of the learners lacked the talent of seeing the fine
lexical and stylistic differences between English expressions. They could not distinguish between the natural
and potential (idiomatic) realization of the social act of greeting (when being
introduced) for instance ‘How do you do’.
·
IEX are available in the students’ mother tongue (Arabic)
while MWV are not frequent.
·
The meaning/semantic problem(s) top(s) the list of the
obstacles faced the students while dealing with IEX/MWV.
The
grammatical problem(s) occupy the bottom of it.
In-between
there reside the phonological, stylistic and definition problems/difficulties
among others.
·
The students thought that the best way to improve their
knowledge and use of IEX/MWV is to be directly involved in the learning process:
awareness, explicitness and active participation. They found it unuseful to just memorize IEX/MWV.
·
The learners’ replies revealed the scarcity of the materials
(references/books, textbooks, workbooks etc) on IEX/MWV.
·
75% of the subjects said that they felt uncomfortable
while meeting and using IEX/MWV in speech and writing.
·
The Sudanese university students of English agreed that
IEX/MWV are important and necessary for the mastery of English.
·
The feed-back about the subjects’ areas of interests enables
us to design a course on IEX/MWV and develop the materials round either the sub-skill
vocabulary courses and the skill of reading or fiction and drama areas.
3. Results/Findings of the Pre-test
In sum, the pre-test given to the subjects of this study is composed mainly
of five sub-tests, which further divided (with the exception of Q.1 & 5.b)
into four sections: Verbal, nominal, adjectival and adverbial combinations. The
students’ general performance varies from one elicitation technique (blank – filling,
multiple-choice, sentence writing/paraphrase… etc.) to another and from one category
(verbal, nominal…etc) to another.
However, from tabulation/presentation and the discussion followed, the
testees’ overall performance could be described briefly as follows:
Statistically, we have the summary below:
Total
number of expected answers = 18000
Total
number of correct answers & percentage = 6942 (38.57%)
Total
number of wrong answers & percentage = 11058 (61.43%)
The
statistics confirmed that the learners have some problems/difficulties while dealing
with idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs.
In an objective test, as those conducted in this research, the proportion
of the correct answers to the wrong ones is expected to be ‘high’ but what obtained
(38.57/61.43%) is low.
Linguistically, the problems/difficulties faced the learners centred around
the following levels:
a. Grammatical
b. Lexico-Semantic
c. Stylistic
For
the grammatical level, the examples below are illustrative:
·
Not able to distinguish between transitive and intransitive
MWV (which affects the grammar of the whole verbal construction/idiomatic expression).
·
Failure to differentiate prepositions (particles) from
adverbs (particles) which has its influence on the position(s) of adverbs, nouns
objects, pronouns object etc.
·
The place of adverbs in relation to MWV.
·
The order and forms of the components of IEX: the arrangement
of the individual words in a given expression (e.g. give and take not *take and
give) and the morphology of the constituents of the IEX: singular/plural (He’s
burnt his boats not his boat) and the choice of the correct junction: e.g.
heart and soul not heart or soul.
·
Transformation problems: not able to transform from active
to passive and from verbal forms to nominalized ones.
Under
the lexico-semantic category, we observe the following:
·
Collocation problems: e.g. carry on a conversation not
* carry out a conversation.
·
Fixation or non-fixation of the items/elements within
IEX: e.g. replacing ships for boats in He’s burnt his boats.
·
The meaning and understanding (comprehension) problems/difficulties.
As
for the stylistic level, we count in:
·
The inability to use the appropriate MWV/IEX in the relevant
context(s).
·
Moreover, the failure to comprehend and paraphrase, for
example, a highly idiomatic colloquial text into normal or ordinary one.
And finally, the logical analysis of the results provided I this pre-test
attributed the subjects failure/non-mastery over these 2 lexical items to the
internal factors as well as (intra-lingual).
These are due to the potential or inherent difficulty of IEX/MWV in the
system of the English language. In the
same source (i.e. the internal reasons), we might count the influence/interference
of the subjects’ L1: (Arabic) e.g. the scarcity of MWV in Arabic as
well as the relevant non-conformity between the IEX in Arabic and those in English:
i.e., the non-availability of the exact counterparts or equivalents in the students’
mother tongue and the target language.
As for the external factors which affect the performance of the subjects
on EIX/MWV, the following general elements could be pointed out:
·
Absence or inattention to these vocabulary units in the
syllabus used in Sudan universities;
·
Faulty teaching materials;
·
Faulty teaching methods, strategies, techniques…..;
·
Dearth of reference, text-books etc.,;
·
Paucity of the academic environment;
·
The general status of English language in Sudan and the
ELT situation in particular;
·
Unawareness of the students/teachers of the importance
of IEX/MWV in English Language and everyday use.
Problems
and Difficulties facing the Teaching/Learning of IEX/MWV in Sudan
After having grouped the findings obtained by the three data collection
tools used at this stage (i.e. before the introduction of the ETC) of this study
in the previous pages, we have presented, as in the section below, the conclusion
arrived at from these findings. This section
mainly encompasses the following 2 categories:
1.
General problems/difficulties: related to the general academic setting(s),
the English language status and the ELT situation in Sudan.
2. Particular problems/difficulties: those closely and directly
relevant to IEX/MWV.
General
Problems/Difficulties
Any discussion of the problems/difficulties of teaching/learning of IEX/MWV
of English in Sudan (or elsewhere) could not be made in isolation of the general
educational scene in that country. Some
of these external problems/difficulties are:
·
The status of the English Language in Sudan.
·
The general ELT scenario in Sudan.
·
The English Language syllabuses used in Sudan and the
position of IEX/MWV in these syllabuses.
·
The materials used
·
Methodology
·
Teacher’s qualification/education and training
·
The evaluation system.
In the previous part of this section, we have discussed briefly some of
the general problems/difficulties which influence the teaching and learning of
English in Sudan. These obstacles are
presented and treated because they have their impact on the teaching and learning
of the English language in general and thus their influence on the teaching/learning
of any skill/sub-skill or any components. Since the above discussed factors are of general
nature we have touched on them briefly.
Specific / Particular Problems / Difficulties
The other (intrinsic/internal) problems/difficulties are those which closely
relevant to the teaching/learning of IEX/MWV.
After getting the feedback from the teachers’ students’ questionnaires
as well as the pretest administered to the students, there was a summary of the
particular problems/difficulties of teaching/learning of IEX & MWV of English
in the context of Sudan. On the basis
of the errors made by subjects in the PRT it can be concluded that either the
students did not know the IEX/MWV semantic and grammatical rules (formation rules
etc.,) or they were exposed to bad techniques/strategies of teaching/learning.
Generally speaking, the specific linguistic problems/difficulties faced
the Sudanese learners around the following levels:
1. Grammatical
2. Lexico-Semantic
3. Stylistic
Overall, chapter five has tried to answer the question ‘What are the problems/difficulties
of teaching/learning of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of English
in the context of Sudan?’ Moreover, an attempt has been made to account for these problems/difficulties.
In chapter six, an attempt has been made to answer the question
‘How to solve the problems and eliminate the difficulties of teaching/learning
of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of English in the context of Sudan?.’
In doing so, we have tried to apply the means, approaches, principles,
techniques, strategies etc., of teaching/learning vocabulary since these two components
(IEX & MWV) are mainly vocabulary area(s).
a considerable emphasis and concern were given to the guessing-from-context
strategy (contextualization) within the framework of the mentalistic and cognitive
approach to language teaching/learning (awareness, explicitness, learners’ active
involvement in the teaching/learning processes…etc).
The present chapter starts with an introduction then follows section 2
which is a brief recall of the problems/difficulties facing the teaching learning
of idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs of English in the context of Sudan. This recapitulation provides the findings and
conclusion arrived at, in Chapter 5 of this study, through using the teachers’
questionnaire, the students’ questionnaire, the pre-test as well as the general
survey of the English Language status, the ELT situation, and the examination
of the English Language syllabuses used at the university level in Sudan.
These problems/difficulties were grouped into two main categories. The
first category is the external problems/difficulties which are general obstacles
that influence indirectly the teaching/learning of IE/MWV.
Some of these extrinsic problems/difficulties are: the status of the English
language, the ELT situation and the university English Language syllabuses in
Sudan. In the same category, there are also the materials,
methodology, teachers’ qualification and training, the evaluation system and the
general academic environment. The second
is the internal problems/difficulties of teaching/learning of IEX/MWV: these are
obstacles which are inherent in the target language (English) or as the result
of L1 (Arabic) interference.
In Section 3, we have tried to put the teaching/learning of idiomatic expressions
and multi-word verbs in perspective mentioning that the teaching/learning of these
multi-word lexical items is part of the teaching/learning of vocabulary and the
later is an important area of language teaching/learning. In the same section, we have discussed some
of the vocabulary learning strategies and teaching techniques with special emphasis
and close reference to the strategy of guessing from context. This sub-section is followed by presentation
and discussion of some of the principles, approaches etc., of teaching/learning
of IEX/MWV.
In Section 4, we have discussed in some detail the teaching and learning
of vocabulary in context – a recurrent issue in our study – indicating its usefulness
and validity in improving the learners’ knowledge and use of vocabulary, in particular,
and the general skills of reading. The section concludes with ‘how’ to train the
learners in the strategy of guessing from context’.
Section 5 concerns with the teaching and learning of IEX/MWV in context. It provides the relevant techniques and strategies
for dealing with this special area of vocabulary: multi-word lexical items.
It takes up the following aspects: pronunciation and spelling, grammar,
collocation and meaning.
Section 6 devoted to the explicitly taught course on IEX/MWV given to the
subjects of the present study. This selection
includes the following headings: the rationale and the objectives, the sources
and contents of the ETC; the evaluation of the suggested materials for the course
and the implementation of the ETC considering the actual steps, classroom procedures
and techniques used.
Section 7 deals with the students’ performance after the introduction/inclusion
of the ETC on IEX/MWV. It provides a detailed
description of the construction/development etc., of the test, the results and
findings of the post-test given to the learners to assess their performance in
these multi-word lexical items. In this
section, we have echoed, for the sake of comparison, the subjects’ performance
in the PRT. It has been shown statistically
as below:
Total
number of expected answers = 18000
Total
number of correct answers = 6942 (38.57%)
Total
number of wrong answers = 11058 (61.43%)
These
statistics present the evidence that the learners have some problems/difficulties
while dealing with idiomatic expressions and multi-word verbs.
A general typology of these obstacles includes the following:
·
Semantic (syntactic, collocation),
·
Grammatical (syntactic, morphological),
·
Stylistic and
·
Orthographical problems/difficulties
From the subjects’ performance, we cold infer also that multi-word verbs
pose more problems/difficulties than idiomatic expressions. This could be seen clearly when we broke down the general results
of the test under the 4 general categories: verbal, nominal, adjectival and adverbial
combinations. The reasons of the students’
poor performance in the verbal combinations might be attributed to the absence
or the scarcity of the MWV in the students’ L1 (Arabic) as well as
the inherent problems/difficulties of that area in the target language (English).
In the post-test the subjects performed as indicated below :
Total
number of expected answers = 18000
Total
number of correct answers & percentage = 17025 (94.58%)
Total
number of wrong answers & percentage = 975 (05.42%)
Comparing these numbers and percentages to those of the pre-test, we found
that the learners’ performance improved to a considerable extent.
This can lead us to conclude that the students succeeded in dealing with
IEX/MWV after the introduction of the ETC on these multi-word items. They committed less errors and produced/got
more correct answers in the POT than in the PRT.
In sum, the Sudanese learners of English at the tertiary level made considerable
improvement and progress in the knowledge and use of IEX and MWV after taking
the explicitly taught course as the results of the POT have shown. This success could be attributed to the approach,
the materials, the techniques and the strategies used in implementing the course
especially the guessing-from-context strategy on which the subjects received intensive
training. The approach followed in this
course is the mentalistic/cognitive approach to the language teaching/learning
which allows for learners’ awareness, active involvement, explicitness and conceptualization. Overall, the ETC starts the students’ understanding and using these
multi-word lexical successfully, helping them to solve the problems and eliminate
the difficulties they face while dealing with these two vocabulary components.
After having summarized the previous six chapters of this study, the remaining
of this chapter will be devoted to offer some suggestions and recommendations.
Suggestions
and Recommendations
In this part of Chapter 7, we present our suggestions and recommendations.
This will be done under the following headings: syllabuses, materials, methodology,
teachers’ role and students’ role, awareness, attitude etc. as well as suggestions
for further research.
·
Syllabuses
The
present study has revealed that the existing English languages used in Sudan do
not cater for IEX/MWV. Question 17 of
the teachers’ questionnaire asks them whether they recommend that there should
be a separate course on IEX/MWV of English in the university syllabus (or not)? Their response showed that there is necessity
for the introduction/inclusion of a course on these multi-word lexical items for
the Sudanese students at the university level. This course will help the learners (as well
as their teachers) to deal successfully with IEX/MWV of English and that thee
two vocabulary components will become as a whole a more manageable part of the
vocabulary of English.
·
Materials
Learners
should be armed with the basic books, textbooks, workbooks and references on IEX/MWV
putting at least one textbook/workbook for 3-4 students at their disposal. The list below includes some materials which
are recommended for use by the Sudanese learners since they proved invaluable
and seem suitable in dealing with these multi-word lexical items.
-
Practice with Idioms (Feare 1980)
-
A Practical English grammar: especially Chapter 38
-
A Practical English grammar: Exercises Book 2
-
Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms
-
Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs
-
Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms
-
Collins COBUILD Idioms Workbook
-
Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs
-
Collins COBUILD Phrasal Verbs Workbook
-
Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms
-
Cambridge International Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs
Note
that some books on IEX/MWV often have or contain expressions which are slangy,
rare or out of date, and which students should avoid unless they understand exactly
how and when the expressions are used. It
might also be useful to remind the reader that to be of any use to the foreign
student a book about IEX/MWV has to do something more than tabulate an arbitrary
selection of these multi-word lexical items based on the compilers’ own tastes
and interests.
·
Methodology
a) Learning strategies
Training the students in the guessing-from-context strategy with special
reference to IEX/MWV for it leads towards the macro-goals of developing vocabulary,
reading skills and language in general. In
our treatment of the semantic aspect of IEX/MWV (see Chapter 4 of the present
study) we have said that the meaning(s) of these multi-word lexical items are
not totally arbitrary. Therefore, their
meanings should not be tackled as arbitrary in language teaching/learning. This
leads us to reconsider and emphasize the following points.
-
Learners can be encouraged to first try to decode IEX/MWV independently
(in isolation) context-independent and in context—context-dependent, i.e., as
a problem – solving task requiring a deeper level of cognitive processing before
resorting to the teacher or the dictionary for corroboration or falsification.
(Lennon
1998)
A deep level of
cognitive processing is known to be beneficial for long-term memory storage (ELLIS
1994). Moreover, in normal learning conditions
and real life situations. IEX/MWV are
encountered in context which facilities comprehension considerably. (Cooper, 1999).
-
It is important for learners to make special and conscious effort
to learn and use IEX/MWV. They could learn
the most common IEX/MWV through an explicit taught course (or long with the rest
of their English courses)
b) Teaching techniques
the impact of this research invites the language teacher in Sudan universities
to give an extra attention and concern to these two vocabulary components in the
teaching/learning of English. The findings
and conclusions suggest that an approach to teaching IEX/MWV will benefit from
teachers’ awareness of the different techniques, principles of teaching, learning
and assessing of vocabulary, within the framework of the mentalistic approach
to language teaching learning (explicitness, conceptualization), to be applied
for teaching, learning and assessing of these multi-word lexical units.
In this respect, the teaching/learning of vocabulary in context will be
an efficient framework. Moreover, the
following practical and specific guidelines for the teachers could be articulated.
What
advice can we offer to a teacher whose learners encounter (an) unfamiliar IEX/MWV
in a text? We propose a strategy involving the following
stages to anticipate and remedy comprehension/meaning problems: this could serve
as a checklist.
i)
If the IEX/MWV reflects a lexical item that seems absent from
the learners’ language/culture, then inform (or remind) about the absence in the
target language/culture.
ii)
If the IEX/MWV risks being mistaken for the equivalent of a resembling
expression in L1, then alert the learner to this risk.
iii)
Encourage the learner to tackle the semantics (meaning) of the
IEX/MWV as a problem-solving task. If
the IEX/MWV has a low level of imageability (transparency), then invite the learner
to resort primarily to contextual clues to infer its meaning, and then test the
hypothesis against the lexical constituents of the IEX/MWV. If the IEX/MWV has a high level of imageability,
then encourage the learner to first infer it meaning from its lexical constituents,
and then test the hypothesis against the context. The hypothesizing can be done individually
but is probably more fruitful if the problem-solving task is tackled as a joint
effort – class activity.
iv)
Corroborate or falsify the learners’ hypothesis. If learners are on the right track, then offer
further guidance towards the full interpretation. If they stay in the dark then clarify the meaning
of the IEX/MWV.
v)
Once the meaning of the lexical item is established, invite the
learners to ‘motivate’ it (i.e., try to apply it to other contexts).
vi)
Raise the learners’ awareness of the other similar IEX/MWV.
In
sum, the classroom methodology should ensure:
a)
Greater role for the students by providing them with opportunities
to participate actively in the teaching/learning of IEX/MWV such as training tem
in the guessing-from-context strategy.
b)
Interesting and suitable teaching techniques like role play,
problem-solving activities and discussion which enhance the students’ knowledge
and use of these two vocabulary components.
·
Teachers’ role, training etc.
-
Teachers have a crucial role to play in the teaching/learning
of IEX/MWV for the complex and difficult nature of these 2 multi-word lexical
units. Therefore, it is important that
they should be aware of the essence and importance of these multi-word lexical
items. They should be more explicit about
the definition(s), concepts etc., of IEX/MWV and, hence, their teaching/learning.
By doing this, we bring the teachers to a different way of thinking about
these 2 vocabulary components. For instance,
IEX are not only vivid and picturesque expressions such as rain cats and dogs,
kick the bucket, to be or not to be etc., but they are also frequent collocations
and natural expressions such as for good, day student, sooner or later, as a mater
of fact etc.
-
Teachers should also know that time spent in teaching and learning
of IEX/MWV is time well spent, for they are central elements in the language –
in the natural/idiomatic usage of the language.
-
Since the proposed approach in this study is based on the learners’
active involvement and participation,
as a problem, solver, the teacher should assume the role of advisor, facilitator,
organizer and creator of learning opportunities.
·
Students’ role, awareness, attitude etc. :
Generally speaking, the students’ role in the teaching/learning processes
should be more essential and important. In
respect of IEX/MWV, there should be an active involvement and participation. On the basis of the mentalistic view of language
teaching/learning, the students should be aware of the grammatical rules (grammar
in its widest sense) which govern the knowledge and use of these multi-word lexical
items and the associated concepts, definitions, terms etc., (explicitness/conceptualization).
This consciousness-raising will be beneficial for sustained development
in learning through concept formation, figuring out of rules and, hence, ability
in problem – solving tasks.
The learners’ attitudes, views/beliefs etc., towards the knowledge and
use of IEX/MWV should be changed by showing indicating their importance and usefulness.
For example, there is a belief that the foreign student should be satisfied
when he can express himself fluently and grammatically, and that there is no need
for him to waste time on language items such as IEX/MWV.
This belief rests partly on a misunderstanding of the nature of these multi-word
lexical items and partly on the mistaken idea that idiomatic language is not exportable
and that the effort of learning it is not commensurate with the results achieved.
It also assumes that foreign students of English are not interested in
these multi-word lexical units. The facts
are quite different. Sooner or later students
become aware that, for instance, to understand the informal conversation that
native speakers of English use they need something more than a simple knowledge
of the grammar and syntax of English. The
idiomatic language interests them vastly, but they lack the confidence in using
it, especially when they observe that the native speaker employs a type of simple
expression (put up with, for example, consists of the simple words put, up and
with) they are apparently familiar with (in form and the individual words).
A well known reaction to the learners’ failure in the knowledge and use
of IEX/MWV is to pore over encyclopedias of idioms and dictionaries of phrasal
verbs and to commit to memory as many ‘picturesque’ idioms and lists of verbal
combinations as possible which they introduce as often as possible into their
speech and writing. Some of these IEX/MWV
might be out of lace in the context of their own experience and the particular
situation. Therefore, the students should
be alert and cautious about the suitable and adequate response to their non-mastery
over these multi-word lexical units.
·
Suggestion for further research
There is a necessity for compiling a basic list for idiomatic expressions
and multi-word verbs of English to serve as a basis for teaching/learning these
multi-word lexical items in general, by drawing on it in designing course(s) and
developing materials. The advantage of
bringing together a number of these associated words (multi-word lexical units)
in one place (list) is that:
1.
Syllabuses designers, material developers etc., could make this list as
the basis to draw from the suitable teaching/learning materials for the foreign
learners.
2. Learners are made aware of several items
at the same time. As a result the learning
process can be greatly speeded up.
Therefore, the following question cold be raised:
How to compile IEX/MWV list containing the frequently used and important
multi-word lexical items?
In addition to the above suggested topic, we propose that a further research
could be carried out in respect of the other types of multi-word lexical items,
if any (since this study has dealt only with idiomatic expressions and multi-word
verbs).
What
are they?
How to teach
and learn them?
Do they
pose any problems/difficulties (in general/for the Sudanese Learners)?
Overall, the study revealed that the teaching/learning of idiomatic expressions
and multi-word verbs of English in the context Sudan faced various and different
problems and difficulties which are as result of several external and internal
factors such as the inherent/potential difficulty and complexity of these multi-word
lexical items in the system of the target language (English) as well as those
related to the students’ mother tongue (Arabic) and the general situation of English
and ELT in Sudan. The possible means for
solving these problems and eliminating these difficulties might reside in introducing
an explicitly taught course on IEX/MWV working within the framework of the mentalistic/cognitive
view of language teaching/learning among other suggested ways to improve the situation. The evidence of the effectiveness of the course
is the significant difference between the subjects’ performance in the pre-test
and the post-test. In the PRT the total
number and percentage(s) of correct-wrong answers are as follows: 6942 (38.57%)
/ 11058 (61.43%) respectively while for the POT they are : 17025 (94.58%) / 975
(5.42%).
Finally, I haven’t actually proved very much in this research, but at least
we now have a much clear picture as to what issues have to be addressed and which
questions to be asked so as to propose measures to improve the situation of teaching/learning
of IEX/MWV of English in the context of Sudan.
However,
I hope this study could fill a gap in the teaching and learning of idiomatic expressions
and multi-word verbs seems to be one of the promising areas for further study
in different and various settings.