THE
SENTENCE IN A SEMIOTIC PERSPECTIVE
Why a semiotic perspective?
Possible
sentences originate in language.
Actual sentences exemplify language use.
Language and language use exemplify mans semiotic response
which consists in mans matching sentences with his cognizing the
environment and addressing sentences to others in the course of his
coping with life. Inquiring into the sentence can best begin,
therefore, by inquiring into the sentence as exemplifying mans semiotic
response which mediates his cognizing and his coping.
Syllables (ָ
s) enter into words (֤ s) ; words into sentences (
s) ; and sentences into texts (ϲ֭ s). So it appears, but then syllables, words and sentences, and texts
really operate at three distinct levels.
At the level of speech forms (ֲ s), syllables are made up of
speech sounds and utterances are made up of
syllables. At the level
of a meaning speech forms (֣-ֲ s), words are made up of formatives
and sentences are made up of words.
At the level of literary forms (ֵֺ֒ s), texts may be segmented into text segments
and aggregated into text corpora.
Considering that sentences are flanked by words on one side
and by texts on the other, a semiotic inquiry can well begin by examining
their relation to words on the one side and to texts on the other.
Sentences and words
How
are sentences related to words? At
the level of meaningful forms, as we have already seen, words are
made up of formatives such as roots, prefixes, and so on, and sentences
are made up of words such as nouns, verbs, and so on.
With a word, one needs to distinguish between the word form
(֤-)
and the word meaning (֤-) ; and with a sentence, one needs to
distinguish between the sentence form (-) and the
sentence meaning ( ).
But there are important differences between words and sentences.
Compare examples at (1a) with those as (1b).
Compare those at (2a) with those at (2b). Finally, compare (1) as a whole with (2) as a whole.
(1)
(a) good : goodness ; good
: better ; house, wife : housewife silver, fish :
silverfish
(b)
warm : warmer, warmest ; warm : warming, warms,
warmed ; house, husband
: house husband
(2)
(a) How did you fare in the
election? I fared pretty well
in the election. I
thank you for asking. How did you fare? Pretty well. I thank you.
(b) How do you do? Thank you.
The more the merrier.
Words are more commonly drawn from a more or less closed inventory,
namely, the lexicon (as in 1a). Less commonly, words are made up on
the occasion with the help of a more or less closed inventory of rules,
namely, the grammar (as in 1b). This
applies to word forms as well as word meanings.
In consequence, words tend to be quite close-knit :
there is little tolerance
for interrupting, inserting, omitting, replacing, or transposing ;
words tend to resist such manipulation.
Sentences are quite different in these respects.
They are far more commonly made up on the occasion with the
help of the grammar (as in 2a) than drawn from the lexicon (as in
2b). This applies to sentence forms as well as sentence
meanings. Sentences tend to
be fairly loose-knit in consequence: there is greater tolerance for
interrupting, inserting, omitting, or transposing of sentence elements.
The unity and identity of a word, then, appears to be more
secure than the unity and identity of a sentence; indeed the sentence
may appear to derive from the word in respect of their units-and-identities.
(At least, such is the claim of the ֤-פ
s in ancient India). But this
is not the whole story if one takes a closer look at word meanings
and sentence meanings and makes a distinction between words and sentences
considered with reference to the lexicon and the grammar when one
judges them to be possible in some language on the one hand and words
and sentences considered in the traffic of actual language use when
a speaker addresses some listener.
Word meanings need to be resolved into word sense (֤-)
of possible words and word address (֤-Ӳ) of actually used words
sentence meanings in turn need to be resolved into sentence
sense (-) of possible sentences and
sentence address (-Ӳ) of actually used sentences.
Let us now illustrate these four phases of meaning one by one.
(3) Word sense
(a)
walk : act humanly - so that one legs it from one place to another
so that both feet are never off the ground at the same time.
(b)
run : act humanly so that one legs it from one place to another
so that both feet are never on the ground at the same time.
Note
: Word sense thus resolves itself into Extension sense (ց-) and Intension
sense (ց֝-). Consider the portions separated by the dash.
(4) Word address
(a)
He threw the ball rather than bowled it.
(That is, throw applies to the case in hand, but bowl does
not).
(b)
He sauntered rather than just walked.
(That is, saunter is more apt, though walk also applies).
Note
: Word address thus resolves itself into Reference address (ãן Ӳ)
(compare throw and bowl in (4a) and Felicity address (֟-Ӳ)
(compare saunter and walk in 4b).
(5) Sentence sense
(a)
The snake bit a man. /The man was bitten by a snake. (The sentences differ in orientation, but resemble in function,
both being statements).
(b)
Might is right, unfortunately. /Let right be might, ideally. (The sentences resemble in respect of the mater
in hand, but differ in function, only the former being a statement).
Note
: sentence sense thus resolves itself into Qualification sense (㏵-ֿµ-)
(consider the difference in (5a) and the resemblance in (5b) and Functionality
sense (ϵ֭-) (consider the resemblance in 5a and the
difference in (5b).
(6) Sentence address
(a)
The earth is round. /The earth is flat. (No matter how it is used
actually, the former statement will score better given the world at
hand. Addressed to an ignorant person, the later
statement may fare better).
(b)
Is the earth flat? No, the earth is not flat. /Yes, the earth is
flat. (No matter which answer the question elicits,
the question has scored well in respect of its fulfillment and fared
well in respect of eliciting a proper answer).
(c)
Is the earth flat? I dont know, really.
(The question has scored poorly in fulfillment and fared poorly
in failing to elicit a proper answer).
(d)
Let right be might, ideally. (The
wish will probably score poorly in fulfillment. Addressed to an unscrupulous
politician, it will fare poorly in convincing him or her).
Note
: sentence address thus resolves itself into appositeness address
(㌟֟-Ӳ)
(statements score in respect of validation, but wishes or the like
score in respect of fulfillment) and suasiveness address (ֵ㌟֟-Ӳ)
(statements fare well or poorly in respect of convincing the addressee,
but wishes or the like fare well or poorly in respect of eliciting
adequate response from the addressee).
At an earlier juncture, the unity and identity of a word appeared
to be more secure than the unity and identity of a sentence. At the present juncture, however, the unity and identity of a sentence
appears to be more secure than the unity and identity of a word; indeed
the word may appear to derive from the sentence in respective of their
respective unity and identity. (At least, such is the claim of the
-פ
in ancient India.)
On second thoughts, one may say that the ֤֤פ s claim is more suasive
at the level of meaningful speech forms (֣-ֲ s)
in that words tend to be ready-made and sentences tend to be improvised
for the occasion; but that the ־פs
claim is more suasive at the level of meaning forms (Ժs)
in that sentences convey messages (ן֤֯s) through their sense and address
and words convey no more than ideas or notions (֯s) through
their sense and address. Messages resolve into notions, but notions
cannot add up to messages without the emergence of something more.
(7)
(a) The snake bit a
man. /A man was bit by the snake.
(The sentences convey the same message, broadly speaking, though
they differ in their Qualification sense).
(b) Let right be might, ideally. /Ideally, right
is might. (The sentences convey
the same message, broadly speaking, though they differ in their Functionality
sense).
It will now be seen that this something more is the element
of address and that word address derives from the sentence address. Even the sentence sense has something more than the word sense and
this something more has to do with the ready availability of a potential
sentence for being used in an actual address.
The various arguments offered by the
֤-֤פ
s and the -פ s in the Indian tradition will
now be seen to fall into place. No
wonder that the debate was prolonged; the problem is indeed full of
complexity and ambivalence.
Sentence and Texts
How are sentences related to texts?
At the level of meaningful forms, as we have already seen,
sentences enter into texts. At the level of literary forms, however,
texts are segmented into text segments rather than into sentences.
Consider the following texts.
(8) out (owt). 1. Away
from or not in or at a place, the right or normal state, the fashion,
etc. (is out; keep him out; go out for a walk;
has her Sundays out; arm is out; Tories are out;
crinolines are out). 2. in(to) the open, publicity, existence, notice,
hearing, sight, clearness, etc. (rose, book, chicken, secret, girl,
is out, open, published, hatched, revealed, introduced to society;
the eruption is out all over him). (Adapted from : H.W. Fowler
and F.G. Fowler, The Concise Oxford dictionary of current English,
first edition, 1911.)
This is a technical text (á-ϲ֭). Technical texts offer a composing of reality forms (þֺ-ֲ֭֭)
with the help of reasoned processing (֍, -ָ֯, -ָ֯).
The present example makes use of many technical conventions such as
typography and offers three segments, namely, lemma, glosses, and
examples thereof. Of course, it also embeds highly abbreviated
sentences.
(9) A Memory
Four dcks in a pnd
A grass-bnk beyond,
A ble sky of sprng,
White cluds on the wng;
Wht a lttle thing
To remember for years
To remember with tears !
(William Allingham, late 19th
century Irish poet, metrical beats added.)
This is a Poetic text (־-ϲ֭). Poetic texts offer a composing of appearance forms (ןֳ֯-ֲ֭֭)
with the help of imaginative processing (֭-ָ֯, ןֳ-ָ֯).
The present example makes use of many poetic conventions such as a
title or scansion and offers two text segments separated by a semicolon.
Of course, it also embeds highly abbreviated sentences.
Just as a sentence may consist of a single word, so a text
may consist of a single sentence. Inversely speaking, just as a word
may serve as a sentence as a free meaningful speech form in actual
use, so a sentence may serve as a text as a free speech transaction
form in actual use.
(10) Sentences as technical texts
(a)
He includes she. (Westminster
Parliament, an Act of 1850)
(b)
In case of doubt win the trick. (Received tactic in Contract Bridge)
(c)
e = mc2 (Albert Einstein, conversion function from mass
to energy)
(11) Sentence as poetic texts
(a)
Might is right. (English proverb,
14th century)
(b)
A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.
(English proverb, borrowed from Latin)
(c)
Make love, not war. (American youth slogan of the late 1960s)
The following sentences, however, are not texts drawn from
some literary inventory, but rather are ready-made meaningful forms
drawn from a lexicon.
(12) Sentence as idioms
(a)
How do you do?
(b)
Dont be silly !
(c)
Now it can be told.
These are no different from idioms that are sentence segments
or sentence fragments.
(13) Sentence segments as idioms
(a)
the tail wagging the dog
(b)
generation gap
(c)
other things being equal (borrowed from Latin)
(14) Sentence fragments as idioms
(a)
mend s fences with
(b)
and never looked back
(c)
Who those who -- ? (as : who holds in custody the custodian?
Who plans the planners?) (borrowed from the Latin Poet Juvenals
Sixth Satire)
Obviously, something is going on here, semiotically speaking.
The unity and identity of the word was seen to be at stake in relation
to the unity and identity of the sentence, both being free meaningful
forms in actual use. Likewise, the unity and identity of the sentence
is now seen to be at stake in relation to the unity and identity of
the text, both the sentence and the text being free speech transaction
forms in actual use.
What is the form of the speech transaction (ָ֯)? What are the elements embedded in it? And how do they get connected in the course
of it?
(15) Elements embedded in a speech transaction
(a)
The meaningful speech form being rendered by the speaker and recognized
by the listener
(b)
The speech effort (֯ϵ֟) being expanded intentionally by the speaker.
(c)
The speech value (֣) being formulated by the speaker and
comprehended by the listener.
Note
: The speech value resolves itself into the speech topic (֯ύ)
eliciting appositeness address and the speech context (֯֒)
eliciting suasiveness address.
(16) Connections in the course of a speech transaction
(a)
The speech effort effects an Expression (ָ, ן֤֯) in getting
connected with the speech value (topic and context)
(b)
The meaningful speech form effects and Impression (Íָ, ϟֵ)
in getting connected with the speech value (topic and context).
(c)
The speech effort stakes an Intention-claim (-־ց) in
getting connected with the speech value.
Note
: The expression or the impression may or may not coincide with the
intention-claim, being liable to exceed or fall short.
At this point, the unity and identity of a sentence in speech
transaction appears more secure than the unity and identity of a text
in speech transaction. (At least, such a claim and could be attributed
to the -פ s in the Indian literary tradition).
But a speech transaction involving a text is no more speech. Transaction : it is the re-performance of the
text (ϲ֭-־ע). The
unity and identity of the speech value has to be understood in a new
way. The topic and the context
are no more the transient entities they ordinarily are. Their unity and identity is made secure by the intention-claim.
The text, whether technical or poetic, has its topic and context
built into it as it were. In consequence the re-performance of a text,
whether it takes the shape of closet or public performance and the
shape of singing or staging or recital or loud reading or silent reading,
is sustained because some community considers the text worthy of performance
and, possibly, memorizing. Until
the advent of handy calculators, multiplication tables were so considered
and even recited. Could they be considered to be technical texts on
a par with, say, the theorem of Pythagoras?
To be considered memorable, texts need to be eloquent.
(The modern revisions of the delightful Fowlers, alas, are
not a patch on the older editions when it comes to eloquence).
This will also apply to recurrent saying like proverbs, slogans
and the like. Leaving aside
this line of inquiry, we can ask a more elementary question. What is so special about a speech transaction that is also a text
performance? The connections
in the course of a speech transaction examined earlier (at 16) stand
enriched in certain ways. It
was pointed out in the Note there that the expression or the impression
may or may not coincide with the intention-claim, being liable to
exceed it or fall short of it.
(17) Connections in the course of an enriched speech
transaction
(a)
The expression may come to coincide with the intention-claim by virtue
of the enactiveness (־ԟԍ) of the meaningful speech form.
(b)
The impression may come to coincide with the intention-claim by virtue
of the eloquence (ϟֵ֍) of the meaningful speech form.
(c)
The speech value may come to coincide with intention-claim by virtue
of the intentionality (ֵ֟) of the meaningful speech form.
Note
: The term ֵ֟ literally
means the quality of subserving that (in this case, that stands
for the intention-claim).
At this level, the unity and identity of a text appears more
secure than the unity and identity of a sentence.
(At least, such a claim could be attributed to the ϲ֭-פ
s in the Indian literary tradition). This level is the ________ level
of literary forms.
A word about the equivalent Sanskrit technical terms offered
here from time to time. They are mostly adopted or adapted from the
Indian traditional thought on semiotic processes as offered by ֍s, ߴ֍s,
֍s,
ֻ֒s,
or the like. Once in a while,
they are simply coinages, in the spirit of the Indian traditional
thought. Thus, the designations in, the ־פs
as contrasted with the ϲ֭־פs are not traditional; but
the lines of thought are : the ֻ֒s
are typical ־֤פs
in this new sense and the ־֤פs
are typical ϲ֭־פs.
The sentence-word relationship has naturally preoccupied the
grammarians and the sentence-text relationship has naturally pre-occupied
the philologists of technical texts and poetic texts.
The sentence has always beckoned to our inquiring spirit.
COLOPHON
This was presented as the inaugural address at a national seminar
on Vkya : an Inquiry hosted by Sahitya Akademi
of New Delhi held at the University of Pune, March 1998. It has remained unpublished.
