Frictionless Continuants :

(a)     /w/-/y/ :

          (i) í `stagnant' (ii) wīŋ `cost'                 (iii) é `dry up' (as water)

              wí `an  instrument'                                wé `build' (a house)

                    (like arrow)

               yí `ice'        yīŋ `forest'                        yé `sharpen' (knife)

(b)     /i/-/y/:

          (i) ì `blood'                                        

              yí `ice'

          (ii) ì? `human excrement'

              yì? `heavy'

1.3. Description of Speech Sounds          

A. Tones : Konyak Naga language has three, lexically constrastive tones – as stated above.

          1. Rising tone, marked by placing `  '  `on the vowel';

          2. Falling tone, marked by placing `  ' `on the vowel'; and

          3. Level tone which is left unmarked.

          Konyak tone is of contour type.  What is important here is their relative height of the tone and not the absolute height.

          Tone is a suprasegmental feature, because it occurs simultaneously with the segmental sounds.  Each syllable carries one tone only.  So, there is one-to-one correlation between the number of syllables and the number of tonemes in any syllabic utterance.

          In the production of tone there is neither friction nor stoppage of air in the mouth.  Tones are mainly the psychological impressions obtained from the physical frequency of sounds.  The quality of tone is always relative in effect.

          In the production of a rising tone, it is found that there is an appreciable rise of pitch from a neutral level which is called level tone; while in the production of falling tone, there is an appreciable fall of pitch from a neutral level which is called level tone.  The amount or degree of rise or fall of pitch is not possible to determine always.  By and large, they are mutually proportionate.  In Konyak language, all the 3 tones are found in all the three positions, i.e., in initial, medial and final positions of a word.

Illustrations

1.       Rising tone

          Initially                Medially                        Finally

          á `axe'                   káp `catch'                      pé `smell'

          é `dry up'               kóŋ `play'                        ñí `two'

             (as water)

          óŋ `raise'               sém `heat'                       phá `tooth'

          īn `bring'                yīm `ripen'                       sò `decide'

              (something                (become

               to a place)                 ripe)

1.             Falling tone        

è `say'                   kƏn `love'              nè `smooth'

èm `sheet/layer'     nƏm `crocodile'      yá `leg'      

ì `blood'                 yán `jump/across'   pà `father'

Ə `my'                   mò `tighten'            cu `dissolve'

                                                         (sugar in water)

òŋ `ride'

ìm `brood'

     (as a hen)

3.       Level tone

          e `he'                koŋ              `knock'                       ne        `tan'

          a `weave'         kƏp             `shut'                         ñi         `sheep'

          as `a cob web' sem             `warm'                       pha       `offer'

                                                    (one self by fire)                    (something to

                                                                                                 somebody)

          Əwha `chicken  yīm              `ripen'                        yo        `collect'

                                                    (already ripe)                         (things)

                                                                                     cu        `unite'

                                                                                                 (a knot)

B1. Vowels : The Vowel sounds of Konyak at the phonetic level are tabulated below :

                                 Front          Central                     Back

          High                    i                    ī                             u  u:

          Mid                     e                   Ə                            o  o:

          Low                                         a  a:

          These vowel sounds are classified into seven groups depending upon their phonemic status.

1) i, 2) e,  3) ī ,  4) Ə,  5) a, a:  6) o, o: and 7) u, u:           

             Before going into the details, it is necessary to note a few features of vowels which are common to all or most of the vowels, so their mention is not made elsewhere.

1.       All vowels are orally produced.  That is, during the produced.  That is, during the production of the vowel, the velic passage is closed, and the oral passage is open.

2.              All vowels are voiced.  That is, in their production the vocal cords vibrate; and

3.       All front vowels are spread (unrounded); and back vowels are rounded and the central vowels have a neutral lip posì¥Á7        

 which is always short, tends to be longish finally, but if any other sequence occurs after it, then they will be short only.

1.              /i/ is realized as [ I] everywhere

          [ i ] is produced by rising the front part of the tongue towards the hard palate as high as possible, but not so much as to touch the hard palate or create any friction therein.  During the production of this sound the lips are spread.  This vowel is high, front vowel.

          [i] occurs in all positions, i.e., initially, medially and finally.

          ì              `blood'               pì `grand father'

          cín          `century'           yi `tongue'

          kí            `like'                 wi `thread'

          ì keƏŋ     `boundary'         wi `thread'

          ì seƏn      `boat'

2.       /e/ is realized as [ e ] everywhere

          [ e ] is produced by rising the front part of the tongue towards the hard palate to a level slightly higher than half the height of the oral cavity, and the lips are spread.  It is a  mid front vowel.

          It occurs in al the environments.

          Initially            Medially                 Finally                    

          è `stay'             pesa `garden'              tè `to'

          e `he'                sém `heat'                  hé `basket'

                                                                  (used to carry paddy)

          é `dry up'          cèn `lean'                   pe `tree'

          eñu `winter'      hem `song'                  se `potato'

                                 kep `shoot'

                                 nem `dew'

3.       /i/ is realized as [ i ] everywhere

          [ i ] is produced by raising the central part of the tongue towards the centre of the palate as high as possible, but not so much as to touch the palate or create any friction therein.  During the production of this sound the lips are in neutral position.  This vowel is high, central vowel.

          It occurs in the following environment :

          Initially                          Medially                      Finally

          im `bend'             nik `call'                        iyi `not'

                                                yim `ripen'

                                                (decome ripe)

                                                sin `know'

                                                nit `knife'

                                                tik `buffalo'

3.              /Ə/ is realized as [Ə] everywhere

[Ə] is produced by raising the centre of the tongue towards the centre of the palate (where hard and soft palate meet), also sometimes slightly backish, to a level slightly higher than the eight of the oral cavity.  During the production of this sound the lips are in neutral position.  This vowel is mid, central vowel.

It occurs in the following environments –

Initially                            Medially

Ə `my'                             sƏm `mud'

Əm `not'                           phƏt `run'

ƏkƏn `cream' (milk)    kƏp `catch'; cover (a pot)

                                       KƏm `basket' (carried in hand to keep

 Vegetables)

                                                PƏn `ten'

4.         /a/ has two variants [a] and [a:]

[a] is produced when the centre of the tongue is low and the lips remain in the neutral position.  This vowel is short, low, central vowel.

It occurs in all the positions except before frictionless continuants.

Initially                           Medially                      Finally

á `axe'                             ñá ? `fish'                      kà `split'

ák `pig'                            san `crab'                      phà `tooth'

a `weave' (basket)           yan `iron'                       yà `leg'

                                       khát `sound'                   ŋa `mad'

          [a:] is produced in the same manner as [a], except for the fact that during this production, the duration is long.  This vowel is long, low central vowel.

          It occurs only before frictionless continuants, eg.,

          [a:y] `drive' (animal) /ay/

          [ŋa:w] `talk'                /ŋàw/

5.              /o/ has two variants [o] and [o:]

            [o] is produced by raising the back of the tongue towards the soft palate to a level slightly higher than the height of the oral cavity.  During the production of this sound the lips are rounded.  This vowel is short mid back vowel.

          It occurs in all the environments except before frictionless continuants eg.,

          Initially                           Medially                      Finally                         ó `dress'                                   phóŋ `pile up'                                      khò `spade'

          Òŋ `ride' (horse)              pòŋ `feel'                       pesò `bark'

          Òm `catch' (chase and                 mók `scream'                yo `collect things'

                             Catch)          (as when frightened)

          Òm `ceek'                       koñ `knock' (door)         phò `spin' (thread)

[o:] is produced in the same manner as[o], but the during is longer, than for the short variety.  This sound is long, mid, back vowel.

          It occurs only before frictionless continuants eg.,

          [ò:y] `mucus'              /óy/

          [ŋò:y] `scratch'           /ŋòy/

                    (with nail)

6.              /u/ has two variants [u] and [u:]

          [u] is produced by raising the back of the tongue as high as possible towards the soft palate, but not so as to create any contact or friction with the soft palate.  During the production of this sound the lips are rounded.  This vowel is short, high back vowel.

          It occurs in all the environments except before a frictionless continuant, eg.,-

          Initially                           Medially                      Finally

          upa `father'                      sùŋ `make hole'             yú `collect' (debts)

          uhu? `thorn'                     túk `locust'                    pù `grand father'

[u:] is produced in the same manner as [u], but the duration is longer in this case than for [u].  It occurs before frictionless continuants only, eg.,-

          [u:ylie]                       `lightly'       /uylie/

          [khù:y?]                     `pound'       /khùy/

          [kù:y]                         `dog'           /kùy/

Vowel Clusters:  There are two vowel clusters in this language.  Any combination of two vowels yields what are called vowel clusters.  All the vowels except [i] occur in the formation of vowel clusters.  The quality of the vowels in the vowel clusters do not change and so they form nucliei of the separate syllables.  Vowel clusters with identical vowels are not common.  But there are a few words with this structure.  In the suggested orthography, the rising tone will be marked by doubling of the vowel.  So to distinguish these from the vowel clusters with identical vowels, a glottal stop which is optionally present in vowel clusters of this type is added in identical vowel clusters.  This measure does not create any problem as the presence and absence of glottal stop in this environment does not make them different.  So it holds.  Other solution is to use a hyphen between the vowels as –

          ma-a `until', kima-a`if', u-um `solid'.

          According to the use of glottal stop, it will be as follows:

ma?a `until', kima?a `if', and u?un `solid'

Usually vowel clusters occur between morpheme boundaries.  Also their number is limited. eg:

          yiún `hail stone'           peáŋ `nut' (of a tree)   moloà `hell'

          èáŋ `predict'               yàƏ ŋ `ankle'              puƏpa `ancestor'

          óè  `near(ly)'              yàƏŋ `heel'                 aŋyiƏp `north east'

                                           mé ŋ `destroy'            miañu `female cat'

                                           meƏŋ `statue'             ŋàe `madly

                                           phòáŋ `imprisonment'  whie `by whom'

                                           cúém `maryfold flower'

B2. Consonants -  The consonant sounds at phonetic level are tabulated below:

          Stops: Unaspirated:     p   b    t    t     c      j      k     ?

                     Aspirated:        ph                              kh

          Nasals:                      m        n         ñ          ŋ

          Fricatives:                                         s                 h

          Lateral:                                 l

          Frictionless

          continuants :               w                    y

          These consonant sounds may be grouped into the following groups depending upon their phonemic grouping:

          1.       p, b                                 9.       n

          2.       ph                                  10.     ñ

          3.       t, t                                  11.     ŋ

          4.       c, j                                  12.     s

          5.       k                                    13.     h

          6.       kh                                  14.     l

          7.       ?                                    15.     w

          8.       m                                   16.     y

1.       /p/ has two variants [p] and [b]

          [i]. [p] is produced by stopping the air column by bringing the lower lip in contact with the upper lip.  During the closure the vocal cords do not vibrate.  However, before the release the vocal cords come together and start vibrating so that when the stop is actually released the vocal cords are in the state of vibration.

          It is a voiceless, bilabial, unaspirated stop.

          It occurs in the following environments-

         

          Initially before vowels                      Medially between vowels  

          pì `grand father'                        apa    `groom'                                          pim `body'                                mƏpu `from'

          pòŋ `fight' (with each other)      ñipa `between'

          pé? `kneel down'                       hípƏk `time'

          pún `flatter'                               Əpèm `breadth'

          pù `fly' (as a bird)

          pan `rub' (dust)

          pƏw `guard'

          pƏy `come'

          Medially in cluster formation  Finally after vowels

          tƏpla `ashes'                             cap `sharpen' (a pencil)

          CƏplƏk `tongs'                          kep `shoot'

          LiptƏm `turn aside'                     hip `smoke' 

                   (divert someone)                       (tobacco)

          Əwpe `when'                             khip `cut' (hair)

          Waŋpen `year'                          yip `twist'

          Ənpóŋ `evening'                        sip `throw away'

          hakpa `rich'                              cƏp `sharpen (a pencil)

(ii). [b] is produced in the same position as for [p], except for the fact that during the production of this sound there is vibration of vocal cords.  This sound is voiced, bilabial, unaspirated stop.

       It occurs medially only, between vowels after a vowel or consonant when they are in across two morphemes (provided the second morpheme is a derivate).

       [wúba]           `oldman'                /wúpa/ [Əmbu]: `where' /Əmpu/

       /wƏmpaŋ/      `widower'              /w mpa/ [laŋba] `killer' /laŋpa

       [líbu]              `death'                  /lipu/

       [tƏybù]           `clever'                  /tƏypù/

       [mabu]           `full'                      /mapu/

       [wanbu]          `hard'                   /wanpu/

       [tawbu]           `high'                    /tawpu/

2.        /ph/ is realized on [ph] everywhere.

       [ph] is produced by closing the air column at the lips in the same way as for the unaspirated [p]; except for the fact that during the release the state of the glottis continues to be in the state of voicelessness; so that between the release of the stop and the following successive sound, a brief period of voicenessness is heard.  This is called aspiration.  This sound is voiceless bilabial, aspirated stop.

       It occurs in morpheme initial position only -

       phù `brew' (beer: 1^st stage)                   Medially across morpheme

                                                                           Boundaries:

       pha `tooth'                                            [ŋá:wpha] `warn'

       phém `drum'                                         iphaw `spit'

       phit `squeeze'                                       mikphi `tear'

       phùk `fig'                                             Əphen `spleen'

       pháy `vomit'                                                  

       phák `fall off/into'

3.    /t/ has two variants [t] and [T]

       (I). [t] is produced by the closure of the oral cavity at the back of the upper teeth by the tip of the tongue.  The vocal cords do not vibrate.  This sound is called voiceless, dental, unaspirated stop.

       It occurs in the following environments-

       Initially before vowels                         Medially between vowels

       [te]       `to'     /te/                                 [katú]     `ass'        /katù/

       [te]       `quarrel' /té/                              [Ətu?]      `danger' /Ətu?/

       [tú]       `point' /tu/                               [nitan]                   `male'    /nitan/

       [tƏm]    `tame' /tƏm/

       [ton]      `point out' /ton/

                                                                  Finally after vowels

                                                                  [yìt]        `comb'     /yìt]

                                                                  [kalat]     `shutin'    /kalat/

                                                                  [táwat]   `window' /tawat/

(ii). [t] is produced bì¥Á7

       Ət         `built'               (road)

       tát        `chop'              (fire wood)

       hit         `tear'               (a paper)

       phút      `rub'

       ñƏt       `dilute'                (add liquid)

       cútlƏk   `swing'