Illustrations:

(a)      Monomorphemic nouns:

       v             á               `axe'       VC         Əm `mat'

      CV         wi             `thread'VCV          asi `tobacco'

       CVCVC mahaw      `cattle'

       CVCV    katu          `ass'

(b)      Polymorphemic nouns

       ák/la       `boar'        VC/CV

       liŋ/pu       `work'       CVC/CV

       na/cu      `earring'     CV/CV

       pho/pa     `painter'     CV/CV

       Əm/lan    `mats'        VC/CVC

      hu?/lak    `lid'            CVC/CVC

2.2.3.1. Compounding:

       Compounding is the process of combining two or more free elements together.  The resultant form will be a complex form in the sense that the semantic context of the constituents may not be equal to that of the compound.  It can be considered as a compound provided all the members form into a single unit and function as a single entity.  Also compounds are those which are compact in their structure, i.e., without the provision for i) pausing, between members and ii) insertion, having semantic uniqueness or unity.  The process of compounding is universal, though the technic of formation may differ from language to language.

       Besides the above two criteria for compounding as found in agglutinative languages (including Konyak), there are a few more criteria which are applicable for inflexional languages (eg. morphophonemic changes, stress pattern, etc.)

       As Konyak is an agglutinative language it shows distinction, between compounds and phrases, by the criteria, viz. insertion and pausing, while it does not show distinction by morphophonemic changes.

       In Konyak compounds are not formally distinguished from phrases except for noun-adjective compounds.  In other compounds `pause' and the criterion of `insertion' decide whether a given construction is a compound or not.  In compounds `pause' is not available/allowed between its constituents and `insertion' of other elements between the constituents is not possible.

       Structurally a Konyak compound may consist of the following types: 1. Noun Compounds, 2.  Verb Compounds and 3.  Adverbial Compounds.

       Compounds may contain 2 or 3 constituents.  But three member compounds are quite rare.  Here mainly two member compounds are analysed.  The noun compounds are discussed in this section and the other two types are discussed in their respective sections.

Noun Compounds: Noun compound is one which functions as a noun immaterial of its constituents.  Usually in a noun compound at least one constituent will be a noun and (an)other constituents(s) may be nouns, adjective, verbs, adverbs, etc.  The internal structure of compounds can be analysed in terms of `head and `attribute' relation.  In noun compounds the noun element function as the head.  In noun compound, one of them will function as head and the other as attribute.  Similarly in verb compounds, the verb element functions as `head'.

       In noun compounds, when both the constituents are nouns, depending upon the type of relationship the constituents have, the `head and attribute' can be decided.  For instance in a compound like ñínòk `tent' where ñí `cloth', nòk `house' both are nouns.  Here the first member indicates the particulars of the material and the second member the purpose, by which the second member is the head (generalizer) and the first is the attribute (particulizer).  In this way it is possible to decide `head' and `attribute' relationships.  A few compounds of similar structure are listed below.-

Hu?cupeƏŋ `rose flower' (hu? `thorn' cupeƏŋ `flower).

The relationship between the members here may be `flower with the thorn' or `flower in the thorn plant'.

Saŋwi `lace (saŋ `hair', wi `thread', i.e., `thread of hair used as lace')

tƏmyèŋ `milk' (tƏm `breast', yèŋ `water', i.e., water of the breast) yakiŋ `wrist' (yak `hand', iŋ `neck, i.e., `neck of the hand').

       These compounds can be said to have `possessive' relation; except the first instance where it is of `sociative' relation.

       Some compounds can be said to have `purposive' relation.  Here the first constituent gives the `purpose' and the second gives the `material' required for the purpose.  For instance- siŋ ñí `skirt'.  This compound's constituents are- siŋ `waist' and ñí `cloth'.  When this is placed in the above format, siŋ is the `place/purpose (of covering)' and the material used for fulfilling this purpose is ñí `cloth'.  So here also the second member is the `head' and the first member is the attribute.  Similarly the following compounds have the same relation but in the first the relation.

i.           wayphaksƏw? `rain coat' (way `rain', phaksƏw? shirt')

ii.          nacu                               `earring'  (na `ear', cu `ornament')

is slightly of different type than in the second one which is as illustrated above.  In this phaksƏw?, `shirt' is used `against the rain.

ND+N : In N-N compounds sometimes a noun may be a derived noun.  It may be either the first member or the second.  For instance the compound (sut (lƏk)leŋ `bench' (lit. bed used to sit).

       Here sutlƏk `sitting' – aderived noun from the verb sut, `to sit', and lƏk is the purposive marker; and lƏŋ, n `bed'.  Here also the second member functions as the head.  In this compound the purposive marker lƏk is optionally used.  Similar compounds are-

       ŊƏw (lƏk)tik `frying pan' (ŋƏw `to fry', tik, n. `pot')

       sim (lƏk) soŋ`threshing floor' (sim `to thrash', soŋ `floor')

N+ND: In some noun compounds the second member may be a derived noun.  Here the first noun indicates the object and the derived noun indicates the action to be carried out.  So in the following compound, ka?hoklƏk `shovel', where, ka? `earth' is the object and hok `to break' is the action desired.  The resultant noun is the instrument used to perform this action.

       Similar compounds are the following:

       yahayóŋlƏk  `sash' (yaha `glass', yólƏk `to stand')

       mƏkmuylƏk `broom' (mƏk `dust', muylƏk `to remove')

       pewƏtlƏk `saw' (pe `tree' / `wood', wƏtlƏk `to cut')

       There are noun compounds with noun-verb as constituents.  Here also the noun is the head, though it occurs as the first constituent, and the verb functions as the attribute.  Semantically in these compounds while the noun gives the `place/object', the verb indicates `action'.  For instance:

       phaksƏw? `shirt'

       Here phak `shoulder' is the noun, indicates the place, sƏw? `to cover' is the verb, conveys the type of action to be carried out. So the resultant compound provides the `object' intended by the constituents.

       Similar compounds are the following:

       siŋhit `girdle/belt' (siŋ `waist', hit `tighten')

       sasum `shoe' (ya `leg', sum `to cover')

       yèŋmok `current' (yèŋ `water', mok `to raise')

       yàklaŋ `bracelet' (yàk `hand', laŋ `to wear')

N – adj: In this type of compounds while this is the normal order, an alternative order, viz., adj-N is also possible, though used to a very limited extent and that too, in poetic expressions.  For instance,

       YƏwmƏynawya `beautiful girl' yƏwmƏy `beautiful' nawya `girl'

       The normal order is n-adj. For instance –tòyóŋ `big basket' (tò `basket', yóŋ `big')

hoysi `tomato' (hoy `vegetable', si `sour')

wuwiŋ `wine' (wu `creeper', wiŋ `sweet')

       As stated above in these compounds alone, there is formal distinction between the compound and its phrasal constructions.  For instance-

a)      tòyóŋ `big basket'

b)      tòƏyóŋ `big basket' (lit. basket which is big)

       While (a) is a compound, (b) is a phrase.  The presence of Ə-(adj. marker) marks the distinction between a compound and a phrase.  Both the forms are equally acceptable.  But usually when more than one adjective is used in a construction, other than the first adjective will be in a phrasal structure.  And the noun with its immediate adjective constitutes a compound construction.

       Besides the above types of compounds which can be systematically analysed into constituents, there are many noun compounds which are not amenable for this type of rigorous analysis as the members do not relate closely themselves to the resultant compounds. eg.-

       Kha?ha, n. `orpha' (kha?, v. `die', ha `small')

       Here though the constituents are V+adj. the resultant form is a noun.  Here the constituents have the same relation: `to die when one is small'.  Similarly the compound `khoŋkhay, n. `camel' where both the constituents khoŋ, v. `move up and down' and khay, v. `go' are verbs; but the resultant form is a noun compound.  The verbs indicate the behaviour of the animal.  Similarly some animals/habitual insects are named after their behaviour.  eg.:- hiŋsew `white ant' (hiŋ `the insect which eats soil', sew `white'), hiyan `fox' (Əhi `clever'; yan `roam' (in the forest)' cƏmli `a variety of ant' (cƏm `poison' li, v. `bite'), moŋcoŋ `mosquito' (moŋ `brown colour'. coŋ. v.`bite')

       Also there are many compounds in which one of the members is unique or near unique. eg.:

       waŋñaŋ, n. `air' [waŋ, n. `sky']

       yèŋphan, n. `the are in the summer which is otherwise cover by water in other seasons' (yèŋ `water' mopphop, n. `foam' [mop `soft']

       phom?    }

                     }`fog' phom `cloud']

       phomti? }

       yìkeƏŋ   }`boundary' [keƏŋ `line']