Due
to their co-existence from time immemorial the plural societies with people of
multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-lingual background belonging to different
socio-economic strata give birth to natural communication policies to suit their
realities with a genuine understanding of inter-woven relations. A nation is historically
evolved, hence it is essential to know about the languages that the rulers of
a country used for administration of their region. Many Indian rulers ruled territories
in which different languages were used for communication by their subjects. Often
the language of the king and the language of those whom he ruled were different.
In order to have a total picture of language used by the rulers for various administrative
purposes, it is essential to have a synchronic and comparative study about the
language spoken by the king, language or languages spoken by his subjects in various
regions, languages used by his poets in their works, languages used in treatise
and inscriptions written during that particular period. Since such a listing is
not the main aim of this paper, an attempt is made here mainly on the basis of
writings on history to identify the languages used for administrative purposes
by various dynasties. In these historical writings in most of the cases the terms
'court language' and 'official language' are used co-terminously.
Historically the language of the people and the language or languages used to
govern them used to correspond with each other. A¿okan inscriptions are
in Pr¡krit, Greek, Armanic. The court language of A¿oka is suspected
to be Pr¡krit (M¡gadh¢). Though at that time Sanskrit was the
language used for cultural purposes, most of the inscriptions of A¿oka
in Mysore and Kurnool vary from those used in the north Indian inscriptions. The
variety used in the latter is identified as a special southern variety of Brahmi
script. Some of the inscriptions a few decades after A¿okan period, found
in Bhaiprolu near the mouth of Krishna river, use the southern variety of the
script. And also the language reflects peculiarities of the local speech. Communication
of the message of the rulers to the people seems to be the basic reason for these
differences.
During Mourya rule, M¡gadh¢ was the court language. Wherever the local
speech forms differed from it, while publishing, the inscriptions were rendered
into the local speech forms (M¡nsehra, Girnar inscriptions).
In
places where the official language (the ruler's language) was found to be not
difficult to follow, the official speech form is retained (Kelsi, Siddapura, and
Maski inscriptions). For Gupta kings Sanskrit was both the court language and
the language of culture. Pr¡krit is suspected as the official language of
S¡tavahan¡s. In their inscriptions the script used is Br¡hmi
with local variations.
Cholas, in the beginning used Sanskrit for certain portions and Tamil for certain
portions in their inscriptions (Raja Raj's Ledan inscription). The latter inscriptions
are totally in Tamil (Rajendra's Thirukkular inscription). When the Cholas won
the regions speaking other languages, they used the language of that region in
inscriptions of that area. Likewise Rajendra I's Balamari inscription is in Kannada
and in Kannada script. Some inscriptions are in Tamil language but have used Kannada
script (Rajendra I's Kottashivara inscription).
After Cholas, Hoysalas occupied this region and they used Tamil for their inscriptions
because it was the language of the people of this region. In the present Tamil
Nadu region, maximum inscriptions found are in Tamil. Sanskrit and Kannada were
used by early Ch¡lukyas for inscriptions. Both languages had the status
of official languages under them and were used in records. Later Ch¡lukyas
used Kannada for inscriptions.
The Kadambas during their early period gave Pr¡krit the status of official
language. But later Kadambas preferred Sanskrit for official documents. Pallavas
have preferred originally Sanskrit as sole official language for documents. The
inscriptions of the later period are bilingual using Sanskrit in the beginning
and local speech of the people like Kannada, Telugu, Tamil for the body of the
document. From about 10th century A.D. onwards inscriptions are in popular speech
form. At the same time Sanskrit remained the cultural language.
The rulers of the Vijayanagar Dynasty, in their kingdom, used the language of
the concerned region for administration. They used Tamil in the Tamil region,
Kannada in the Kannada region and Telugu in the Telugu region. Out of nearly 5350
inscriptions 2500 are in Kannada, 1300 are in Tamil and 1000 are in Telugu. On
many occasions the kings of this empire have signed on copper plate inscriptions
in Kannada irrespective of the inscription being in Nagari script, Sanskrit or
in Tamil region.1 The education system devised was suitable for people to join
the Government service. Here the people were educated in mathematics, etc., it
was essential for them to acquire the knowledge of several scripts.2
Haidar Ali Khan and Tipu Sultan who ruled the Mysore region used both Persian
and Kannada as court languages. Also during their period treatises written in
Dakhni were available to public.3
Until the rulers from outside the country entered to rule Indian territory Indian
languages were used in administration. In 1175 A.D. Mughals rule began in India.
The official language of Mughals was Persina. Since Persian language was not the
language of this country, though it became the official language, Sanskrit remained
as the medium of social and cultural intercourse.4 Also in certain regions most
of the Muslim Governments have used Persian and Hindi in their public orders.5
It is essential to note one aspect of Mughal public service that 'Akbar evolved
a policy of India for Indians'. However there were a great number of foreigners
to man various departments and offices created by Akbar. These high officials
were mostly Persians, Afgans and others ... that 70% of these officials belonged
to foreign ... 30% being Indian Mohamedens and Hindus ... Akbar gave equal opportunities
to the Hindus and Muslims. Jahangir and Sahjahan continued to maintain the policy
but Aurangajeb reversed with disastrous results.6
During the Britishers' rule English was the official language and for nearly a
century Persian continued in some of the regions, because Britishers succeeded
Mughals. Though in 1837 Persian lost its status, Urdu continued in certain parts
of North India.7 Macaulay's Minute of 2nd February 1835 changed the course of
language use in India.
It is to be carefully noted that though during the British period English became
the Official Language, the languages were not completely removed from their usage
in administration. In 1900 A.D., in the N-W Government a decision (Resolution
18-4-1900) was taken. According to that decision: (1) All persons may present
their petitions or complaints either in the Nagari petitions or complaints either
in the Nagari or in the Persina character as they shall desire. (2) All summons,
proclamations, and the like in vernaculars issuing to public from the courts or
from revenue officials shall be in the Persian and the Nagari characters and the
position in the latter shall invariably be filled up as well as that of the former.8
In the southern part of the country, present Karnataka region also Kannada was
in use for official purposes. In 1837 A.D., John A. Dunlop, the Collector and
Magistrate of Belgaum, vide his letter No.121 of 1837 dated 20th April 1837addressed
to D. Greenhill, Esqr., Judicial Visiting Commissioner, Dharwar, wrote that 'the
Kanarese has already been introduced in the judicial criminal branch of my office
and has apparently made a considerable progress. Orders have however been issued
for its being made the language of business throughout this jillaas from the 1st
November'.9
In the history of India, though there are instances after instances wherein only
one language was the Official Language, it is very difficult to find a point of
time where only one language was used as the sole language of administration in
a specific region. It seems that the official language was used for the purposes
of rules and other interrelated activities. And used within the set up of the
Government to a large extent. However languages of the people were used for all
the necessary communicative purposes.
The public have shown interest to learn Sanskrit or Persian or English with the
aim that the knowledge of it will open up avenues for jobs in the Government.
This had created a set of people, who would always join the Government service.
All these happened in different type of administrative structures wherein the
common man had a very little say.