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1. Introduction
Adult education programmes are meant to educate illiterate adults through their
mothertongue or the language of the region, so that they can read and write and
carry on their social functions effectively and efficiently. Though learning a
language is not education, in the modern set up language is the basic tool through
which education is possible. Hence, learning is obligatory to all types of education.
As far as adult education is concerned our aims are of two-fold. First, we should
teach an adult the language, and then through that language teach the content
pertaining to his professional field which he needs to carry on his social functions
effectively and successfully. Thus, teaching of the language which the adult knows
to speak already and uses to perform his social function is the more basic and
the most important aim of adult education.
An uneducated
adult is a grown up man and a matured person. He knows how to carry on the social
functions. He also knows to understand and speak atleast one language. But he
is an illiterate. Hence teaching and testing procedures have tobe separately designed
with special skills for adults.
2. The Goals of Adult
Education
Whatever we teach to an adult illiterate
must be useful to him and enable him to live in the society by performing his
social functions effectively and efficiently. Hence, the adult education is intended
to make the illiterate adult.
(i) to be able to understand
better, read and write in the language which he listens and speaks daily in the
environment he is living.
(ii) familier with simple and
basic arithmetic, and
(iii) to posses the knowledge of
basic social and environmental education.
As far as the
languge part is concerned, teaching and testing procedures must be thoroughly
planned so that it becomes a proper medium later for the social and environmental
education to be taught.
3. The Language Skills
Language learning involves four essential and integrated skills, viz, listening,
speaking, reading and writing. But the illiterate adult learner already understands
and speaks a language, he already knows the first two skills, viz., listening
and speaking. Hence more emphasis should be laid on reading and writing both for
teaching and testing. Now, what is his proficiency in the other two skills? Is
his fellow beings ? Is his proficiency in listening sufficient to receive and
perceive the social and the environmental education he needs? The answer to the
second question is 'yes' since the adult is fully competent in expressing his
ideas in his own dialect of the languages though he is not expressing his ideas
in his own dialect of the language though he is not a master of it and no one
has a right to find fault he range of teaching and testing because in listening,
unlike in speaking, the adult should be competent enough to perceive what the
others speak. The variety of the language which he understands may have deviations
from the variety of the language my have deviations from the standard dialect
or the language of the mass media such as radio and television. Thus, as far as
the language part of the adult education is concerned the reading and writing
skills are nucleus and the listening skill is peripheral.
4.
Listening Skill
Listening skills is not an essential
skill of language learning for adult education. It is tested only to measure the
learners wider capacity to comprehend different varieties of a language. The following
points are wroth considering for the testing of listening skill.
(1) Accent : Accent varies from person to person and region to region.
Therefore the learner must be exposed to speeches of different persons.
(2) Rapidly : Rapidly is also a varying factor in the speech. Rapidity
of speech also varies from person to person and region o region.
Public speeches, radio talks and plays by eminent speakers and popular artists
may be used for comprehension to test the above factors. Depending on the availability,
even the tracks of feature films may be used.
3 .Style
and register : The language of different styles and registers may also
be tested since the adult learner should be able to understand not only his own
dialect but also different varieties of the language. Classroom lectures, public
speeches, radio talks, etc. may be used for testing these factors.
4. Vocabulary : The adult learner's vocabulary may not be adequate
to understand a speech of a broader nature. For instance, the stock of vocabulary
of an illiterate agriculturist may not be adequate to understand talks on other
fields such as family planning, prevention of diseases, politics etc. So a test
of vocabulary of a broader nature is essential.
5.
Dialect differences: The learner's dialect may be different from the standard
form which may be the variety used in the mass media such as radio, television,
newspapers, etc., or it may be a class or a caste dialect. The differences between
these dialects and the standard variety of the speech may be necessary to test,
to see whether the learner is able to comprehend the language used in the mass
media or not.
6. Reading skill : Reading
is nothing but grasping the meaning in a language through its written representation.
It requires a familiarity on the part of the learner with two major components
viz., the structure and the vocabulary. So far as the adult learner is concerned,
the structure of the language is already known to him. He is also familiar with
most of the vocabulary. He may not know some of the vocabulary items of the language
used in order areas with which he is not familiar. Special vocabulary test may
have to be developed to test those unfamiliar vocabulary items in respect of their
function, usage, semantic values, socio-cultural aspects, etc.
The other features of the reading skill are as follows :
Visual discrimination and perception involves discrimination of the character
and their alignment.
Recognition involves recognition of
the graphemes, sound symbol correlation, spelling of the words and their pronunciation,
primary and secondary characters and their alignment.
Comprehension
involves literal understanding of phrases, sentences and passage at the lower
level and inferences, underlying ideas, literacy and aesthetic appreciation at
the higher level.
Speed involves faster sound symbol correlation and
pronounciation the following reading skill tests may be framed.
5-1.
Reading tests :
1. Pre-reading tests : Pre-reading
test to be given before the actual reading takes place since the learner is already
familiar with listening and speaking, help the stuent to link the known sounds
to unknown symbols, and a great deal of pre-reading experience is essential before
he actually starts reading.
(i) Identification : Characters
with close resemblance create ambiguity confusion and even discouragement in the
case of adult learner. Telugu-Kannada ra (Õ-ý ²µå)
and pha (o-ý ²¿µå) Hindi-Marathi tha £Ö
and ya µÖ and English e and c, p, q, b, and d are some of the examples
for this. Hence, more and more identification tests are necessary so that the
learner becomes so familiar with the alphabet that the identification of characters
became automatic.
(a) Identification of a given letter
: A character is given in the answer sheet and right side to that a group
of five or six closely resembling characters which contain the given character
is given either as a row or as a column. The learners has to find out the initial
character from the group.
(b) Words in a column : Instead
of characters, words are used in (a) but the group of words are put in a column.
(c) Words in a raw or in columns : In (b) words are put in a row or in
columns. This will be slightly more difficult than (b).
(d) Sentences in a column : Instead of words sentences are used in (b).
(e) Sentences in a row or in columns : Instead of words sentences are used
in (c)
(ii) Pictures to words : The learner
has to pick up the correct word that corresponds to a given picture from a group
of given words. Words with close orthographic resemblance may be used for this
test. If the language has a spelling system that does not correspond to the spoken
word like English, French. Etc., the test becomes more difficult.
(iii) Spoken words to printed words : The stimuli is a spoken word. The
learner hs to find out the corresponding written word spoken stimuli. This issued
mainly to test two things, viz., (a) teaching graphic forms of a language especially
those which employ syllabic and logographic way of writing and (b) to test spelling
ability in a language that employs alphabetic writing.
(a) With printed options : A word is heard and these will be three
or four options in the answer sheet out of which only one corresponds to the spoken
word.
(b) With printed options : Three or
four words are heard and a word is given in the answer sheet corresponding to
one of them.
2. Vocabulary : Most of the
vocabulary tests are used to test unfamiliar words or idioms. Tests are made to
find out synonyms, antonyms, definitions-word or phrase to statement and statement
to word or phrase etc. care should be taken to see that the comprehension problem
lies in only one place, either in the stem or in the options. If the problem is
in the stem, the options should be known ; on the other hand, if the problem is
in the options the stem should be comprehensible. Instead of giving words or phrases
as stems separately, the key word may be put in a suitable sentence.
(i) Synonyms : Finding out equivalent form in meaning to the given words
or phrase from the given options.
(ii) Aatonyms : Finding
out opposite form in meaning to the given words or phrse from the given options.
(iii) Definitions : Matching of multiple choice items.
(a) Statements
to word or phrase
(b) Word or phrase to statement
(vi)
Completion : Filling up the blanks by selecting the missing word or phrase. Only
one word should be omitted from each item. This tests the familiarity of the learner
with the usage of the missing word or phrase.
(a) Filling
up the balks with oral multiple choices.
(b) Filling up the blanks with printed
multiple choices.
(c) Filling up the blanks selecting words or phrase from
a printed list.
3.Comprehension :
(i)
True-False statements : A list of printed statements are given. The student
reads each of the statements and marks ' true ' or ' false ', as the case
may be.
(ii) Appropriate-Inappropriate statements :
A large picture or poster is displayed on the wall or shown by an opaque projector.
A list of statements based on the picture are given in the answer sheet. The students
reads each statement, compares it with the picture and marks ' appropriate ' or
' inappropriate ', as the case may be.
(iii) Completion
items : The student reads the first part of the sentence and completes it
by selecting the proper word (s) or phrase from the given choices. The differences
between this and the one given under vocabulary is that the incomplete part in
this is always at the end of the sentence.
(iv) Logical
Inference : A sentence is given to the student. The he is asked to find out
the subsequent sentence that provides a logical explanation or conclusion. This
can be given with multiple choices.
He is hungry. He must
eat now.
(v) Continuation of thought : This is logically
less rigorous then (iv). The student has to select the statement that continues
he thought of the first sentence more appropriately.
(vi)
Question and answer items : Printed question are given with multiple options
as answers. The students have to pick up the correct answer.
(vii) Statements and rejoinder : A statement is given as spoken by a person
followed by three or four options. The students have to select the best one of
the options that can be used by another person to continue the topic initiated
by the given statement.
(viii) Comprehension passage
: Passages may be given for reading comprehension. Care must be given for
reading comprehension. Care be taken while constructing items so that poorly constructed
items which can be answered without reading the passage will not creep in.
(a) Oral answers : After giving sufficient time to red the passage the
students are asked to answer questions orally. Similarly, summaries, gists, etc.,
may be asked.
(b) Printed options : After reading
he given passage, items with printed stems and
printed options are given.
The students have to select the correct answer from the options.
(c) Written options : After listening to the passage the students are asked
to answer a set of questions based on the passage by writing. In such tests along
with the reading skill the writing skill is also tested. These tests can be of
different types such as of definitions certain words and expressions, appropriate
use of words and expressions, logical conclusions, author's opinion, reader's
inference, etc.
(ix) Assignments : Textual and general
material is given for reading assignments. In assignments, along with the reading
skill, writing skill is also tested. So these tests pre-suppose that writing is
already known to the student.
(a) Written questions
and answers : After reading the given material the students are asked to write
answers to questions to questions based on the passage.
(b) Summarization : After reading the given passages the students are asked
to write brief summaries.
Detailed summareies, epitomization,
precise writing etc. may not be included under reading since they involve more
writing ability than reading.
4. Speed texts : These
tests are meant to the how bets the student can recognize the characters, arrange
them into words, and words into phrases and sentences, and utter them with natural
accent and normal speed.
Reading Comprehension :
(i) Speed reading with comprehension : A passage is given to the students with
a set of comprehension questions. The student has to read the passage and answer
the questions in a specified time. Correction formula may be applied to avoid
guessing.
(ii) Pure speed test : A long passage suitable
for the level of he class is given to the students, At uneven intervals non-sense
words are inserted. The testees while reading the passage have to strike off the
non-sense words.
6. Writing skill
Writing skill is more sophisticated of all the language skills since written matter
possesses a certain degree of finally and demands real proficiency from the riter
if it is to be effective. To develop the writing skill the learner has to follow
a series of steps. Vocabulary, spelling, grammar, etc., must be mastered before
the students can aspire to precision of exception, fluency and style.
When the written language is compared with the spoken language which the student
already knows we may find a few but important differences which come under the
preview of writing skills both for learning and for testing.
First of all none of our writing systems is a perfect representation of the spoken
language. Our writing systems do not represent stress, intonation, etc. Moreover,
the spelling system of certain languages create a big gulf between the speech
and the written language.
Sometimes the written language
may be far different from the spoken language like spoken and written Tamil or
colloquial and and literary Telugu.
Students may come across
certain morphemes which are represented by two or three spoken forms (English
written -s as -s, -z and -*z Telugu ƒ (a:) for both a: and * etc.).
Rapid speech is another hurdle. We do not find rapid speech transcribed as it
is spoken.
Typographical conventions such as spacing, punctuation,
margins, etc., and written conventions such as salutations and closings are also
important for teaching or testing of the writing skill.
When the writing skill is tested all these points have to be kept in mind and
tets have to be prepared carefully.
6.1. Writing tests
Some of the writing tests may be as follows :
1. Pre-writing
tests
Before writing words or sentences the students
must be familiar with graphemes and their alignment in which the language is transcribed.
Therefore, the students must have enough experience in practicing graphemes before
they actually start writing.
(i) Copy writing :
(a) Script with accuracy : The students have to copy given words and sentences
in the concerned script of the language.
(b) Script with
speed : A passage is given for copying in a specified time. If the students complete
it before the time is over they are asked to go on rewriting until the time is
over. Grading is done on the basis of the length of the passage and the accuracy.
(ii)
Dictation of known words and phrase : Words and short phrases with which the students
are familiar are given for dictation.
2. Vocabulary
Vocabulary tests evaluate the students recall capacity. Since the learner is an
adult who already knows how to speak the language, vocabulary which is supposed
to be difficult for him only is to be tested. Also vocabulary items and their
usage in the standard dialect, in case the learner's dialect is different from
the standard one, should be taken into consideration.
(i)
Pictures : THE students have to recall and write the vocabulary item corresponding
to the given cue. This test includes the following categories.
(a)
Nouns
(b) Adjectives
(c) Adverbs
(d) Verbs
(e) Prepositions and postpositions
(ii)
Series : A series of words with one or two omissions is given. The students
are asked to write down the missing word (s).
Ex :
Directions, days of a week, months of the year, etc.
(iii)
Numerals : The students are asked to write down given numbers, dates, simple
arithmetic operations, etc., from figures to words and words to figures. This
may be used for dictation also.
(iv) Synonyms : The
students are asked to write down a word which is semantically equivalent to the
given word.
(v) Antonyms : The students are asked
to write down a word which is semantically opposite to the given word.
(vi) Related words : A noun, an adjective, a verb or an adverb is given
and the students are asked to write some other related form which can be derived
from the given word.
(a) Verb to noun
(b) Noun to adjective
(c)
Noun to adverb
(d) Noun to verb
(e) Adjective to adverb
etc.
(vii)
Analogies : Simple grammatically related analogies such as act, actor, drives,
driver etc. are given. Care must be taken to avoid analogies involving students'
intelligence.
(viii) Definitions : The students
are asked to define the given words.
(a) Filling the blank
with a single word.
Ex: 'A boy or a girl less than eighteen
years is called a minor'
(b) Definitions in simple sentences.
(c) Definitions in longer sentences - complex and compound sentences.
3
.Dictation
Dictation can be of the following type :
(i) Partial dictations : Each students is given a copy of the passage in
which function words, affixes, propositions or post-positions are omitted. As
the passage is being read the student fills in the blank.
This type of dictation has two advantages. It can be administered more rapidly
and scored objectively than other types of dictation and it tests only problem
words avoiding the writing avoiding the writing down of the words already known
to the students.
(ii) Dictation of known material :
Small paragraphs from the textbook which the students have already studied
are given for dictation.
This should not be announced to
the class earlier. If it is known to the students earlier the scores may become
unreliable because even the poor student may get high score by memorizing the
passage.
(iii) Paraphrased dictation of known material
: Dictation of a paraphrase of a dialogue or a selection which the students
have studied already is given. The patterns, vocabulary, etc. remain the same.
Only the sentences are rested to avoid possible memorization by the students.
(iv) Dictation of new material : Materials with which the students are
not familiar are given for dictation. This may be given at an advanced stage.
4.
Partial sentences
(i) Affixes and case-markers : Sentences in which
prefixes suffixes, prepositions and postpositions are missing, are given to students
and then asked to fill them in.
(ii) Words : Sentences
with certain words omitted are given and the students are asked to fill them in.
(iii) Phrases and clauses : Sentences in which phrases and clauses are
omitted are given and the students are asked to fill them. In this type it is
always better to give three or four options from which the students have to select
the best suitable one.
5. Directed sentence
Learning to write sentences is an important step in the acquisition of writing
skill since the sentences is the nucleus. Therefore, sentence level writing tests
are a must to achieve better goals in writing a language. Sentence level tests
are as follows.
(i) Simple substitution : Replacement
of a specified element of a sentence by some other element.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc., can be given for substitution.
(ii) Multiple substitutions : Replacement of a specified element in a given
sentence leads to a change in some other element of the sentence.
Nouns, adjectives, prepositions, etc., can be used.
(iii)
Modified substitution : The word given for substitution is modified before
it is substituted.
(iv) Replacement : Replacement
of a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence by an appropriate pronoun.
(v) Transformation : Changing the word order, number, tense, voice, mode
; changing from affirmative to negative, interrogative etc., can occur under transformations.
(vi) Conjoining of Sentences : The students are given two independent sentences
and are asked to combine them by using conjuctions, verbal participles, relative
participles, relative pronouns, etc.
(vii) Directed Questions
and Answers : Simple question answer type items
suggesting proper responses
can be given. When only one element is to be tested, care must be taken to avoid
other modifications. Negation, verb forms, prepositions, postpositions, pronouns,
etc., can be tested by these items. The students are asked either to give answer
to a given question or vice versa.
(viii) Sentences Construction
: Students are asked to construct sentences from a
list of given words
such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, etc. Nouns are given in the nominative
case and verbs in the root form.
(ix) Picture writing
: Students are asked to write a sentence describing a given picture. For example,
if a picture of a boy in running position is given, the students are supposed
to write the sentence ' The boy is running '.
6. Directed
Passages : Tests with passages provide continuity that is lacking in sentence
tests. At lower level passages can be given in written form. At higher level passages
can be given orally because it is more difficult than the written one, as listening
skill and in certain language spelling problems are involved.
Passages for the following tests may be oral for advanced students and written
for the beginners.
(i) Passage Transcription :
(a)
Change of Tenses : A passage is given to the students and after listening
(or
reading in the case of lower level students) the students are asked to
transpose the passage in time, i.e., future to present or present to past, etc.
(b) Change of style : A conversational type of passage is given to the
students. After listening (or reading in the case of lower level students) the
students are asked to rewrite it in indirect discourse.
(ii) Retelling a story : First the students are made to hear (or read )
a story. Then they are asked to rewrite the story in their own words.
Advanced students may be asked to write in a different tense, in a different literacy
style, or from a different point of view.
(iii) Writing
a dialogues : The students are given a skeletons conversation, with key words
and points. The students have to write out a complete conversation using the given
key words and points logically.
7. Composition
Composition is an important component of writing. It measures the capability of
the students to organise their ideas, to choose their vocabulary, to formulate
their sentences and to express their feelings besides writing skill. The main
disadvantage of composition is scoring and grading. Compositions cannot be scored
objectively. Even if the same examiner scores a composition on two different days
his scoring will be different. But however, since composition is an art which
exibits the proficiency of the students, composition tests cannot be ignored.
(1) Vocabulary Based Composition : It is meant to measure the richness
and appropriateness of the students' recall of vocabulary. Scoring and grading
may be done talking these points into consideration.
(i)
Use of Nouns : Students are asked to describe a classroom, a scene, a shop,
a menu card etc., where he finds a lot of noun words to write.
(2) Use of Adjectives and Adverbs : The students are asked to compare two
scenes, pictures etc., where a lot of colour words occur, or two dinners from
which a lot of taste words can be elicited.
(3) Use
of Verbs : The students are asked to narrate an experience such as a journey,
a holiday trip a get-together, a picnic etc.
(ii) Directed
Composition : After a particular topic is taught to the students they are
asked to write an easy describing some other similar topic. For example, after
a lesson on Mahasivaratri is over the students are asked to write an essay on
Sriramanavami. Similarly, after a lesson about the preparations for panchayat
elections in the village is over, the students are to write an essay about the
preparations for the Assembly election in his village.
(iii) Letter writing : After the students become familiar with letter writing
conventions they are asked to write casual letters sending greetings, thank you
notes, business letters asking a pump set dealer to send a pump etc., complaints
and petitions to higher authorities regarding poor sanitary, water and electric
conditions etc.
R E F E R E N C E S
1.
Lado, Robert : Language Testing.
2. Valette, Rebecca, N. Modern Language Testing.
3.
Gupta, N. R. Manual for Adult Literacy Testing.
4. Kripal, Prem : A study of
Reading materials for Neo-literates in India.