Teaching and Learning of Idiomatic Expressions and Multi-word Verbs of English in The Context of Sudan

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…groups of words with set meanings that cannot be calculated by adding up the separate meanings of the parts.

… peculiarity of phraseography … having meaning not deducible from those of the separate words …

However, defining idioms in a way which throws emphasis on ease or difficulty of interpretation leaves a great deal unsaid……

… an approach based simply on the semantic opaqueness (or transparency of whole combinations yield a very small class of idioms. It leaves out of account, for example, an important group of expressions which have figurative meaning (in terms, of the whole combination in each case) but which also keep a current literal interpretation. Among such ‘figurative idioms’ are catch fire and close rank. There is other evidence, too especially the fact that a small number of words can be substituted in expressions often regarded as opaque (consider burn one’s boats or bridges), that idioms are not divided as a small water – tight category from non-idioms but are related to them along a scale or continuum.

A view of idiomaticity which does full justice to the rich diversity of word-combinations in English must recognize that the meaning of a combination may be related to those of its components in a variety of ways, and must take account also of the possibility of internal variation, or substitution of part for part. The application of both criteria together produces a complex categorization:

i. Pure idioms: Though discussions of idiomaticity at both a technical and non-technical level are usually limited to the type illustrated by blow the gaff and kick the bucket (surely the most often quoted idiom of all), idioms in the strict sense comprise only one, and certainly not the largest, a of a spectrum of related categories. Historically, pure idioms form the end point of a process by which word-combinations first establish themselves through constant re-use, then undergo-figurative extension and finally petrify or congeal.

ii. Figurative idioms: This category has already been identified. It is idiomatic in the sense that variation is seldom found (though note act that part or role; a close, narrow shave) and pronoun substitution unlikely (though consider Bill had a narrow shave and Fred an even narrower one). The merging of this group into that of pure idioms is illustrated by such expressions as beat one’s breast and (again) burn one’s boats. The literal senses of these expressions do not survive alongside their figurative ones in normal, everyday use and for some speakers they may indeed be unrelatable. For such speakers these expressions fall into the category of pure idioms.

iii. Restricted Collocations: In such combinations, sometimes referred to as ‘semi-idioms’, one word (i.e. in the case of two-word expressions) has a figurative sense not found outside that limited context. The other element appears in a familiar, literal sense (cf. the verb and noun, respectively, in jog one’s/sb’s memory and the adjective and noun in a blind alley). Some members of this category allow a degree of lexical variation (consider, for instance, a cardinal error, sin, virtue, grace), and in this respect ‘restricted’ collocations resemble ‘open’ ones. Another point of similarity is that the ‘literal’ element is sometimes replaced by a pronoun’.

(Cowie et al 1993)

· Moreover, after considering the various definitions of idiomatic expression(s) the researcher is for Wood (1981) definition which is as follows:

‘An idiom is a complex expression which is wholly non-compositional in meaning and wholly non-productive in form’. (Wood 1981:95).

In brief, the reason for this preference is that it seems comprehensive and valid. It caters for meaning and form of these expressions.

· The researcher also found Michael Wallace’s (1982) definition as one of the comprehensive and working definitions:

‘… However, it could be suggested that a practical definition of idiom for teaching purposes will contain three elements:

1. Idioms consist of more than one word;

2. Idioms are fixed collocations and

3. Idioms are semantically opaque

(Wallace 1982:118)

As for the definition(s) of MWV, we have considered and examined a lot of definitions.

The following seem adequate and valid:

· Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary Of Current English’s Definition

‘a simple verb combined with an adverb or a preposition, or sometimes both, to make a new verb with a meaning that is different from that of the simple verb, e.g., go in for, win over, blow up.

(OALDCE 1996:869)

· A.P. Cowie and R. Mackin’s Definition (1993)

Under the sub-heading: What is a Phrasal Verb? Cowie and Mackin, in their ‘Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs’, provide the following definition:

‘In English, verbs are often put together with short adverbs (or particles) as in run back, put (the dish) down, warm (the milk) up.

Verbs often combine with prepositions too, as in come into (the room), drop (the vase) on (the floor), translate (the play) into (French).

All these combinations are easy to understand, because you can work out their meanings from those of the individual verbs and particles or prepositions. (So, put the dish down means place the dish in a lower position). But sometimes the combinations are more difficult to understand. Look at the combination break out (verb + particle) as it is used in this sentence: Cholera broke out in the north of the country.

In this example, the verb break doesn’t have the meaning it has in phrases like break a window or break a stick. And ‘out’ doesn’t mean ‘outside in the open’. The combination has to be understood as one unit of meaning ‘start suddenly or violently’. When a verb + particle (or a verb + preposition) is a unit of meaning like this it is a phrasal verb. Sometimes you will find a verb, a particle and a preposition combining to form one unit of meaning. A well known example is ‘put up with’ (meaning ‘tolerate’). This too is a phrasal verb’.

Cowie and Macking 1993 (3^rd impr. 1994):xi.

· M. Wallace 1982

‘A multi-word verb is a verb plus a particle (i.e. preposition or adverb), or, sometimes a verb plus two particles, which join to form a new structural unit. Here are some examples of multi-word verbs:

…add up, …take on, …work out’.

(Wallace 1982:119)

· Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary Of Current English’s Definition represents one of the most adequate and comprehensive definitions of multi-word verbs:

‘a simple verb combined with an adverb or a preposition or sometimes both, to make a new verb combined with an adverb or a preposition or sometimes both, to make a new verb with a meaning that is different from that of the simple verb, e.g. go in for, win over, blow up’.

(OALDCE 5^th ed. 1995:869)

Concerning the relation between IEX/MWV, we have attempted to clarify it as follows:

In short, some of idiomatic expressions are multi-word verbs particularly those which are termed phrasal verbs. Not at all idiomatic expressions are phrasal verbs: there are other different idiomatic constructions: nominal, adjectival and adverbial categories. One can say that not all idiomatic expressions are multi-word verbs (there are others as indicated above) and not all multi-word verbs are idiomatic expressions: there is another type-beside the phrasal verbs – which is literal or non-idiomatic verbal combinations.

In the discussion of the meaning(s) of IEX/MWV, we have repeatedly emphasized the point that these multi-word lexical items carry meaning. In this respect, I have demonstrated and shown that MWV carry meaning, in general, and particle/prepositions, in particular, often have meanings which contribute to a variety of verbal combinations. In English, verbs are often put together with short adverbs (or particles), as in run back, put (the dish) down, warm (the milk) up. Verbs often combine with prepositions too, come into (the room), drop (the vase) on (the floor), translate (the play) into (French). All these combinations are easy to understand, because you can work out their meanings from those of the individual verbs and particles or prepositions (so, put the dish down means ‘place the dish in a lower position’). But sometimes the combinations are more difficult to understand. Look at the combination ‘break out’ (verb + particle) as it is used in this sentence Cholera broke out in the north of the country: In this example, the verb break doesn’t have the meaning it has in phrases like break a window or break a stick. And out doesn’t mean outside in the open. The combination has to be understood as one unit, meaning ‘start suddenly or violently’.

The component multi-word verbs is constantly growing and changing. New combinations appear and spread. Yet combinations are rarely made on a random basis, but form patterns which to some extent can be anticipated. Particles/prepositions often have particular meanings which they contribute to a variety of combinations and which are productive, that is, these fixed meanings (of particles/prepositions) are used in order to create new combinations.

Approaching the lexico-semantic properties of idiomatic expressions, we have started by discussing the following statements regarding meaning:

‘If you do not know the meaning of a word or an expressions call it an idiom’.

But idiomatic expression has meaning and one its meaning is established an idiom is unequivocal and (provided it is used in the right context) it means the same thing to everybody. However, the reader could bear in mind the following points when approaching the lexico-semantic aspect of idiomatic expressions.

1. The meaning of an idiomatic expression is more than the aggregate of words.

2. An idiomatic expression is a mutually sense – selecting construction, where each member has a sense that is possible only in construction with another item; an expression which has a meaning different from the meanings of its constituents; semantically an idiom behaves like one lexical item but grammatically the constituents behave like common words. For example:

Kick the bucket (die); Kicked the bucket; *Kick the bucketed.

In respect of collocation, we have mentioned combinations of words that are natural and normal to native speakers are called collocations. The actual nouns etc. that can combine with a particular phrasal verb are called its collocates. (So ‘conversation’ is one of the collocates of ‘carry on’). Some of the collocates of ‘carry out’ are: ‘experiment, test, research, investigation’ among others which can be used as direct objects of that phrasal verb. And the collocates of ‘carry on’ besides ‘conversation’ ‘talk’, ‘discussion’. With ‘carry on’ it is possible to use words that related in meaning as ‘debate’ and ‘negotiations; (both of which are types of discussion). A native English speaker will know that it is a natural and normal to say carry out an investigation not ‘*carry on an investigation’. On the other hand, we normally carry on a conversation Not *carry out a conversation.

As for the collocation of IEX, we have offered the following discussion:

Here are some idioms with their meanings: Let the cat out of the bag (-reveal a secret); lick someone’s boots (= humble oneself to gain someone’s favour); rain cats and dogs (= rain heavily); Storm in a teacup (= fuss about something that is not really important); Off the cuff (= not prepared before hand).

What is it that they have in common? One could suggest that these expressions are fixed collocations… However, some collocations are fairly loosely related… With idioms, this freedom of collocation is much more restricted.

Using the examples we have noted, it would be odd to say:

They have let several out of bags (= revealed several secrets); he goes about licking people’s sandals; yesterday it rained dogs and cats; the teacup has just had a storm; he made an of his-cuff remarks, and so on. Generally speaking, however, idioms operate in some ways as if they were compound words, and the number of changes that can be made are very limited.

Regarding the sense relations of IEX, we have discussed synonymy (a saving grace / a redeeming feature), antonymy (early on / latter on; by accident / by design), false friends (hold sb’s hand / hold hands) and other semantic relations.

Many multi-word verbs have synonyms which are single words but these words are much formal e.g. bring up / educate.

Antonyms describe opposite processes such as: putting on/taking off; coming in / going out.

An important point to mention in respect of synonymy of multi-word verbs is that particle and prepositions themselves have synonyms which alternate after verbs:

Examples are :

· Synonymous particle: ‘about, around/ round’

· Synonymous prepositions (on, over, upon).

Idiomaticity has been touched upon briefly in this section. Clearly the fact that very many verbs with particles or prepositions are used idiomatically is the central issue that we have to deal with in mastering this important area of the vocabulary. To highlight the distinction between idiomaticity and non-idiomaticity of English expressions, it might be useful to consider the following questions:

Dd

1. How can idiomaticity itself be recognized and defined?

How in practice do we decide whether a particular expression is idiomatic or not?

2. Is the distinction between idioms and non-idioms clear-cut, or do the two categories shade off into each other? Where do we draw the line between idioms and non-idioms?

3. What criteria in particular must expressions satisfy to merit inclusion in idioms’ dictionaries?

A view of idiomaticity which does full justice to the rich diversity of word-combinations in English must recognize that the meaning of a combination may be related to those of its components in a variety of ways, and must take account also of the possibility of internal variation, or substitution of part for part.

Before rounding of chapter 4, we have compared contrasted and related IEX / MWV to the native speech of the Sudanese Learners in terms of metaphors, saying and proverbs, colloquial (informal) language and slang. However, the discussion has led us to the following conclusion:

The speech of Sudanese people – Colloquial Sudanese Arabic – contains idiomatic expressions of different kinds (fixed collocations, saying/proverbs, catchphrases etc.) and these expressions are used widely by them. They are part of our subjects speech. However, multi-word verbs are few in classical Arabic thus in Sudanese colloquial Arabic. Therefore, the notion and the concept of the multiplicity of the words of verbs are not clear for the majority of our subjects. The researcher himself (helped by other native speakers) couldn’t provide more than one or two examples of those verbial constructions from classical Arabic. This claim is borne out by the questionnaire given to the students who were not able to give even a couple of examples of multi-word verbs in Arabic.

Overall, the (4) previous chapters (the introduction, the literature review, the position/ status of IEX/MWV in English and the syllabuses used in Sudan and the linguistic study of these multi-lexical items) which form the first part of this study, serve as a theoretical background/framework for the empirical/practical part of this research. (Chapters five and six as well as the general summary and conclusion for the whole thesis).