ON LANGUAGES
ASHOK R. KELKAR

 

 

PROSODIES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS IN MARATHI

 

The PROSODIES in a language can and have to be specified in phonological terms and not merely in phonetic terms we shall, therefore. Begin by indicating how the phonological form of prosodies is correctly rendered by the speaker and recognized by the listener.

 

At the same time, the prosodies participate I conveying certain notions. It so happens that in Marathi lexically functioning prosodies are only marginalthere is little word accent and no word tone. But syntactically functioning prosodies play an important role in Marathi. The notions that these convey are connected on the one hand with the other with the way the sentence fits into the communicative context offered by the situation and the larger text., if any. So the second step will be to indicate, in the light of this, how the notional form is correctly formulated by the speaker and comprehended by the listener.

 

The last step will naturally be that of collating the phonological forms and the notional forms. This collation constitutes the function of the sentence prosodiesit will thus be the sign-relation between the sign-vehicle and the sign-message.

 

The present study will conclude with a brief glance at some of the stylistic implications and the pedagogical implications.

 

Phonological Forms.

 

Phonetic resemblances and differences are reduced in a language to phonological identities and distinctions, In order to understand how this takes place, one has to have an idea of how phonetic contiguities and distances are reduced in a language to phonological cohesions and boundaries. In other words, a phonological form in a language consists of phonological segments and prosodies in cohesion within and across the boundaries of phonological domains. Thus, in the Chinese language, the phonological form ling2 meaning zero consists of the presyllabic segment I, the syllabic segment I, and the postsyllabic segment ng together with the prosody second tone (high rising pitch) within the phonological domain of a syllable.

 

A phonological domain (such as a syllable has a characteristic culminative feature (enabling one to say, for example, how many syllables there are in a stretch of speech) and a characteristic demarcative feature (enabling one to say where one syllable ends and the next one begins). Marathi has the following successively more inclusive phonological domainsthe segment, the syllable, the prominence group, the accent group, the tone group, and the breath group. A phonetic stretch between silences, that is, an utterance consists of one or more breath groups: an utterance is not a phonological domain, but just a phonetic fact. The phonological segment is a combination of phonological features. Such that there are no permutative contrasts with in this domain. The six types of domain can be describe briefly, and ways of symbolizing them in phonological writing, suggested. (See table 1)

 

Phonological prosodies operate in association with the various phonological domains. Some of the phonological prosodies of Marathi are context [predictable and so without any distinctive value. (Hence, the corresponding symbols, which are marked with an asterisk below, can be dispensed with in phonological writing) The phonological prosodies of Marathi can be grouped into JUNCTURES, ACCENTS, ACCENT MODIFIERS, TONES, and TONE MODIFIERS.

 

The junctures (with their symbols) are presented below-

 

SEGMENT juncture (null space)

SYLLABLE juncture (period*)

PHRASE-MEDIAL juncture (hyphen)

PHRASE-FINAL juncture (word space)

SENTENCE-MEDIAL juncture (single bar)

SENTENCE-FINAL juncture (double bar)

 

 


 

Table 1

Marathi Phonological Domains

 

The Domain & its symbolization

Culminative Features

Demarcative Features

Remarks

Segment

(null space)

Peak of stricture or independent glide

Dependent glide or abrupt transition

No per-mutative contrasts within

Syllable

(period)

Peak of sonority

or peak of intercostals pulse

Trough of sonority or start or arrest of intercostals pulse

Phonetic syllable with extrashort vowels (smita , pahi ǰe) do not count as phonological syllables

Prominence group

(hyphen & grave accent)

Peak of prominence-the syllabic longer than elsewhere

`trough of prominence & slowing down of final segments

Roughly corresponds to the grammatical word.

Accent group

(word space and acute accent)

One and only one phrase nucleus

Trough of loudness & slowing down of final syllables

Roughly corresponds to the grammatical phrase

Tone group (single bar and a raised solid circle)

One and only one tone nucleus

Deeper trough of loudness & greater slowing down of final syllables

Roughly a longish phrase or a shortish sentence: final pause optional

Breath group (double bar)

One and only one nuclear tone group

Even deeper trough of loudness & even greater slowing down of final syllables & abdominal pulse limits

Roughly corresponds to the grammatical sentence & the speech act; final pause optional

 

 

Example showing domains and junctures:

Leaving out the predictable elements:

-׾֤.ָ . ף -.-. . - .. ָ . .-. ߅

-׾֪٣֭ -֛--

ֵ -ָ þã ߅

 

The accents (with their symbols) are presented below

PHRASE-MAGINAL accent (grave accent*)

PHARASE-CNUCLEAR accent (acute accent)

TONE NUCLEUS (raised solid circle*)

Example with accents added:

-׾֪٣֭ -֛-

- ָ þã. ߅

 

Leaving out the predictable elements:

-׾֪٣֭ ֛--

--ָ þã - ߅

 

The position of an accent within the prominence group is predictable. As a rule, it accompanies the second-last syllable, except that it accompanies: (a) the only syllable, (b) the last syllable in a disyllable, if the second-last syllable ends in a short vowel (׾֙, ֕, , , ֻ), (c) the third-last syllable in a polysyllable if the second-last syllable ends I n a short vowel (ן, ֭֟, ִ, ֍-).

 

The phrase-marginal accent could be regarded simply as a weakned phrase accent. Each accent group has one and only one phrase-nuclear accent, the other accets if any being predictably weakened. The phrase-nuclear accent is open to accent- strengthening.

 

The accent modifiers (with their symbols) are presented below-

 

TENSION FALL accent modifier (single underline for the whole prominence group)

TENSION RISE accent modifier (double underline for the whole prominence group)

Example used so far, which has no accent modifiers);

-׾֪֣ -֛--

-ҵ-ָ þã -߅

The tones (with their symbols) are presented below in a tabular display. (See Table2.) The symbol is placed at the end of the tone group. There are no phrase-level tones.

 

Table2 Marathi Sentence Tones

 

GRADUAL

STEEP

EXTRA STEEP

REVERSED

FALL

\

\\\

RISE

/

///

 

Note how the rise-fall is treated as a kind of fall and the fallrise as a kind of rise.

Examples with tones added:

 

-׾֪٣֭ -֛ - -

- ָ þã -߅.

-׾֪֣ -- ֛0- -

- -ָ þã -߅

 

 

The tone may remain unmodified, that is with intervals between pitch-levels being what is the norm for the speaker concerned. In contrast, the tone may be strengthened or weakened by adding tone modifiers.

The tone modifiers (with their symbols) are presented below (the symbols are placed at the beginning of the tone group)

 

Tone strengthening: pitch stretch

Tone weakening: pitch squeeze

Example with tone modifiers:

-׾֪֣ þã -

-֛- - - -ָ

 

The phonetic features described below should partly help one to render and recognize the prosodies inventoried so far

Segment juncture: dependent glide or abrupt transition between the segment and the preceding/ following segment/ silence within or across syllables.

 

Syllable juncture: trough of sonority or start or arrest of intercostals pulse. (It position is predictable according to certain rules-any deviant or reinforced syllable boundary).

 

Phrase-medial juncture: a trough of prominence and slowing down of preceding segments.

 

Phrase-final juncture: a trough of loudness and slowing down of preceding syllables.

 

Sentence-medial juncture: a deeper trough of loudness and greater slowing down of preceding syllables: any accompanying pause being with breath held or egressing in the course of an abdominal pulse.

Sentence-final juncture: even deeper trough of loudness and even greater slowing down of preceding syllables; any accompanying pause being with breath held or ingressing: may coincide with the end of the abdominal pulse with breath ingressing.

 

Phrase-marginal accent: peak of prominence; the syllabic vowel, short or long as the case may be, longer than elsewhere, the post-syllabic longer than elsewhere.

 

Phrase-nuclear accent: peak of prominence, peak of loudness within the accent group; the syllabic vowel and the postsyllabic even longer then elsewhere; locus of pitch transitions characteristic of the tone.

 

Tone nucleus: The syllable bearing the last phrase-nuclear accent to occur in a tone group is the locus of the nuclear pitch transition of the tone. If any other phrase-nuclear accent becomes the tone nucleus, then it also becomes the last phrase-nuclear accent to occur in the tone group. Example:

 

 

-׾֪٣֭ -֛ - -

- ָ þã -߅.

 

Tension fall accent modifier: The tension peaks at the opening of the accented syllable (with slight prolongation of the pre-syllabic segments or glottal catch) and falls through the rest of the prominence group: the peak of loudness and the pitch range stretch covers the accented syllable and any other syllables that may follow in the prominence group.

 

Tension rise accent modifier: The tension rises from the begriming of the prominence group to the close of the accented syllable (with slight prolongation at the close of the syllabic. Or of the post-syllabic segments or glottal catch): the peak of loudness and the pitch range stretch covers the accented syllable and any other syllables that may follow in the prominence group. The prolongation at the close of the syllable may result either in a clip or a drawl.

 

Tones: The tone cadences cover the whole tone group with pitch transitions at each phrase-nuclear accent. The cadences can be described phonetically in terms of four pitch levels, namely, low (1), mid (2) high (3), extra-high (4) that are relative to the pitch range available to the speaker concerned.

 

In the absence of any tone modifier, the pre-nuclear portion of the cadence starts with a small pitch rise (12) (along with a loudness gain) up to the first phrase-nuclear accent. The pitch level of each pre-nuclear accent is slightly lower than the pitch level of the preceding one if any within the tone group: The portion in between two successive phrase nuclear accents has a slightly rising pitch or even pitch ending in a down skip to the latter phrase-nuclear accent. (This is the so-called stepping cadence.)

 

The portion of the cadence from the syllable bearing the tone nucleus to the end of the tone group is distinctive of each tone. The distinctive cadences for each of the Table3) A tie line indicates a short stretch downskip or an upskip or an even-skip as the case may be.

 

Table:3: The Nuclear Cadences of Marathi Sentence Tones

 

 

GRADUALTEEP

EXRASTEEP

REVERASED

 

 

FALL

\ 32 OR

21

\\311

\\\4332

^231or

 

 

 

 

132

RISE

\32 or

\\344

///234

V 324or

 

12

 

 

423

 

 

 

 

 

 

The nuclear cadences of steep. Extra steep, and reversed fall tones have a gradual loudness loss (the fade). As for the remaining five tones, the loudness loss is even more gradual, indeed these tones a end in an abrupt cut-off in glottal effort and loudness. Extra steep fall and rise tones have an even greater slowing down of final syllables a and optionally a loudness dip at the pitch even skip. Extra-steep fall and reversed rise tones have optionally a glottal trill (the creaky voice) when the voice has low or near-low pitch.

 

Tone modifiers: These affect the cadence of the whole tone group but are especially distinctive in the pre-nuclear portion. Among other things, they affect the pitch range: the intervals between the four pitch levels are stretched or squeezed as the case may be.

 

Pitch stretch tone modifier: The whole cadence has a pitch stretch. The pre-nuclear cadence starts with an up-skip (13) up to the first phrase-nuclear accent. The portion in between two successive phrase-nuclear accents has a sharply falling pitch ending in an up-skip to the latter phrase-nuclear accent, which is at a slightly lower pitch level than the former (just as in the unmodified stepping, cadence.) There is an overall tone strengthening in this way.

 

Pitch Squeeze tone modifier: The whole cadence has a pitch a squeeze: hence no up-skip or down-skip or even-skip is noticeable. The pitch range thus squeezed approximates the closing pitch level of the tone preceding within the breath group or the opening pitch level of the tone following within the breath group. (It will be misleading to call this even pitch or level tone. As we shall see later, even a weakened tone before a sentence-medial juncture has a pitch rise and one after a sentence-medial juncture has a pitch rise or a pitch fall in concord with the preceding nuclear tone group). Examples:

 

ָ-ָ / -׾֪٣֭ þã -߅.

-׾֪٣֭ þã -߅.

-֛ - - - ָ

 

The prosodies described so far taken together with the segments constitute the central phonology of the language. Marathi also has a peripheral phonetic resemblances and differences are not fully reduced to phonological and identities and distinctions and phonetic contiguities and distances are not fully reduced to phonological cohesions and boundaries. Peripheral of what are sometimes aptly called speech gestures. Speech gestures is an area where notional resemblances and differences are not fully reduced to notional identities and distinctions. The accent modifiers, the tone modifiers described earlier under the nuclear phonology come rather near to being speech gestures.

 

Peripheral phonology has its segments and segment sequences often with phonetic features and arrangements that are found rarely or not at all in nuclear phonology.

Examples:

[retroflex click], [39] and other onomatopes

[s pulmonic ingressive]. ֵ [a pulmonic ingressive]. ֍ [yaek?] and other near-in voluntary cries (including sobs, wails, hiccups, and laughter)

 

[?h] or [? ə̃h]. [alveolar click] and other gestures to oneself

 

ׯ [pş] [ʃ t], ־ [lateral click with lips spread and rounded alternatively], [ʃ k] and other gestures to animals, children, and humans

 

,,... [a?a i? ī] ..and other utterances that are ritual-chant-like

 

But or present concern is with peripheral trans-segment feature (and such segments or segment sequences as are associated with central and peripheral prosodies). The peripheral prosodies may not always operate in association with the domains of central phonology.

 

The PERIPHERAL trans-segmental features of Marathi can be grouped into PROSODIES, PERIPHERAL VOICE ARTICULATIONS, PERIPHERAL MODIFIERS, AND VOICE QUALITIES

 

The peripheral prosodies (with their symbols) are presented below

 

TEMPO RAPID and SLOW (RA, SL)

REGISTER HIGH AND LOW (HI, LO)

VOLUME LOUD and SOFT (LD, SO)

PROSODIC TRANSITION ABRUPT and SMOOTH (AB, SM)

 

Very low register is often accompanied by glottal trill (creaky voice). A reference has already been made to peripheral prosodies accompanying tension rise accent modifier, namely

 

CLIP (short syllabic cut-off by a long post-syllabic or glottal catch)

DRAWL (long syllabic trailing off into a short post-syllabic, if any)

 

Examples:

RA ; ֻ-ֻ-־֍ RA /

LO ֗-֟-ֻ֯ LO ׭ָ /

LD LD /

AB ֻ ֙ AB //

 

A reference has already been made to High and Low register variants of sentence tones in Table 3.

 

The marginal articulations (with their symbols) are presented below

 

ARTICULATORY TRANSITION-AND-TARGETTING PRECISE and SLURRED (PR, SR)

NASALIZATION (NA)

YODIZATION (tongue front raised towards the palate and lips spread, that is, delabiopalatalization) (YE)

 

WAWIZATION (tongue back raised towards the velum and lips rounded, that is, labiovelarization) (WO)

 

Examples:

Pr pr - pr ֻ֍ pr ֻ- /

Wo NA ֵ- NA NO wo և /

֬ ֻ // SD SR - SD SR /

YE - YE /

 

The marginal voice modifiers (with their symbols) are presented below

 

ENLARGED PHARYNX VOICE (PV)

WHISPERIZATION (WH)

ASPIRATED VOICE (HV)

LAX LARYNX VOICE (LV)

TENSE LARYNX VOICE (TV)

 

Examples:

PV -֚ ֐ - PV //

WH -Ӵ֟-Ӑ֟ WH //

և ֟ \ FV ֻ --֛- FV//

HV ֓ ֵ- HV //

LV SR ֻ ײֻ֍ ֜ ֜ - LV SR

TV ֬ - ֻ TV ///

 

The marginal voice qualities (with their symbols) are presented below-

 

LIGHT VOICE QUALITY (acute and lightly damped, LQ)

 

MELLOW VOICE QUALITY (grave and lightly damped, MQ)

 

HEAVY VOICE QUALITY (grave and highly damped, HQ)

 

Here acute means energy concentration in higher overtones and grave means energy concentration in lower overtones.

 

Example:

 

LQ ֲֺ ֍ LQ ֐- LD PV HQ ֑

LD ֻ PV HQ///

 

Finally, the peripheral segments and segment sequences that are closely associated with central and peripheral prosodies can be grouped into PAUSES, CARRIES, and FILLERS.

 

A pause can be MEDIAL PAUSE (associated with the sentence-medial juncture), FINAL PAUSE (associated with the sentence-final juncture), and SILENCE PAUSE (a longer pause amounting to a silence on the part of the speaker). The first two (symbol SP) can vary in length.

 

A carrier is segmental material serving to carry a central prosody or a peripheral trans-segmental feature. These are:

 

[h ] or [h ā] or [h ū] [can carry a variety of fall and rise tones]

 

[hm̩?] or [āhā?] or [ūhū] (can carry the gradual fall tone)

[ā ?] or [ɔ̄?] or [hā?] or [hā e?] (can carry the gradual fall tone)

[vyael ] or [yaey] (can be iterated and carry yodization)

[u] or [ɔ̄] or [] (of variable length, can carry Wawization

 

A filler is segmental material serving to supplement the usual word material within the same tone group.

, [a] [a]

[h ā] or [ā] or [a]

, [] or [ā ] or [a]

Examples:

HI HI

LD LD

և-

MQ MQ

-

Lo Lo

ֻ֯- -ָ--- /

 

Before concluding this account of phonological forms, one may take notice of a couple of very short tunes, used in juvenile chants and which may be transcribed by making use of a single bar to indicate a musical beat, macron and brave to indicate mores, and some notes from the middle and the lower octaves.

Examples:

 

̄˘ ̄˘ ̄˘ ̄˘

C C

־ (nursery rhyme)

(childs tale speech)

ֵ (nursery tale speech)

? (vowel jingle)

׍ (syllabary jingle)

־ ֟

̄˘ ̄˘

C C

(consonant jingle)

 

Notional Forms

 

Notional resemblances and differences are reduced in a language to notional identities and distinctions. In order to understand how this takes place one has to have an idea of how notional contiguities and distances are reduced in a language to grammatical cohesions and boundaries. The formulation and comprehension of notions that are associated with sentence prosodies has a close relationship to the grammatical domains of phrases and sentences together a with their structure. Marathi has the following successively more inclusive grammatical domains: the formative, the word, the phrase, and the sentence. (The so-called dependent clause is simply a kind of phrase that has some of the structure of a sentence. The so-called independent clause in coordination with other independent clauses is simply a sentence within a sentence sequence. The so-called independent clause in super ordination to one or more dependent clauses is simply the residue of a sentence when all the sentence-like phrase are removed and hence amounts only to a fragment, not to a grammatical domain of any kind.)

 

Some of the grammatical categories that we may have an occasion to make use of may need to distinguish between global scope and corresponding respectively to a sentence structure and a sentence element. Thus, a question may be global or focal in scope. Globally

Did the man eat an apple?

Is it that the man ate an apple?

Who ate an apple?

What did the man eat?

Negative polarity may be global or focal in scope. Globally

The man didnt eat an apple.

Not that the man ate an apple.

But focally

Not the man (nut his son) ate an apple.

The man ate not an apple (but a pear).

Likewise with an exclamatory statement, relativization, and so on.

 

The sentence has a communicative layout. The part that makes the communication feasible is the TOPOS especially the anchoring portion of it, namely, the TOPICAL FOCUS. and there is the part that makes the communication worthwhile: this is the SCRIPTUMespecially the anchoring portion of it, the SCRIPTUM FOCUS

 

Some times, typically so in an early or a very late phase of communication, the to-pos may be wholly implicit if not tacit. the explicit sentence is wholly the script-um.

 

Examples (leaving in only junctures and accents):

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

ֻ ֌߅ ״֡ - ׯֿ־

TOPOS TOPICAL SCRIPTUM

FOCUS

΄

פ-߅

SCRIPTIVE

FOCUS

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

- ֌ ״֡-օ ֻ ׯֿ־

 

TOPOS TOPICAL SRIPTUM

FOCUS

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

֌ ״֡-օ ֻ ׯֿ־

 

TOPOS TOPICAL SRIPTUM

FOCUS

΄

פ-߅

SCRIPTIVE

FOCUS

 

The boundary between TOPOS and SRIPTUM can seen variously as a boundary between pairs such as- subject/ predicate,

 

referential anchor/characterization imparted, information address/information input, shared information/new information, presupposed matter not affected by global polarity/ matter affected by global polarity yielding opposed entailments,

 

taken to be available / offered as relevant. As such the boundary is open to manipulation, and so is the overt order of the material on either side of it.

 

What does the worthwhile ness of a communication consist in? This depends on the kind of communication it is; it may be a STATEMENT or a MAND. A statement offers to confront a state of affairs so that when the scriptum is seen to match the topos the statement is deemed to have made good its claim to truth and to have succeeded in effecting a suasion. A mand offers to make a claim on a state of affairs so that when the mand is deemed to be made good, that is fulfilled and to have succeeded in effecting a compliance.

 

Grammatically, a sentence may be a statement. Alternatively, it may be a wish (chiefly calling for compliance). Marathi also has two special kinds of mands: questions and calls. Questions declare ignorance and wish for enlightenmenttypically in the shape of a statement that will remove the ignorance. Alternatively, questions demand that the addresses make a statement that meets the prescription made. Compliance to a call consists into the addresses making himself available to the speaker.

 

A piece of communication may, however, be neither a statement nor a mand but rather a rite such as a greeting.

 

A piece of communication, whatever the kind has certain orientations inseparable from it:

 

(1)               Orientation to the context whether the context is situational or textual the communication is CONCLUSIVE if it effects a closure or seeks to, but INCONCLUSIVE if it effects an overture or seeks to

Examples:

΄ ΄

(1) - - \ (I know /believe that the claim is valid/ that the suasion will be effected).

΄ ΄

(2)               - - \ (I think / feel so, I am persuaded but I have reservations/ I notice implications).

΄ ΄ ΄

(3)               - - \ - \ (Like 1)

΄ ΄

(4)               - - \ (Like 1)

΄ ΄ ΄

(5)               - ֙\ (Like 1)

΄ ΄

(6)               - - \ (Like 4)

΄ ΄

(7)               - - \ - \ (Like 2)

΄ ΄ ΄

(8)               - \ (Like 2)

΄ ΄ ΄

(9)               - - ֙\ (Like 2)

΄ ΄

(10)           - ָ֙- \ (Like 8)

΄ ΄

(11)           ։ ֛- \ (I know/ believe that the wish will be fulfilled.)

΄ ΄ ΄

(12)           ։ ֛- \ (I think/feel that the wish will be fulfilled.)

΄ ΄

(13)           --ֻ-\ (the question as wish I think I know the answer, I think

Im going to get the answer; as demand : I think youre going to answer).

΄ ΄

(14)           --ֻ- \ (the question as wish : I dont think I know the answer, I dont think Im going to get the answer; as demand : I dont know whether youre going to answer).

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

(15)           - - -֍ \ (whether order, advice, or request: I think that the demand will be met).

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

(16)           - - -֍ \ (whether order, advice, or request: I think that the demand will be met).

 

΄ ΄

(17)           ִÍָ \ ִÍָ ( the greeting routine is initiated and closed.)

΄ ΄

(18)           ִֻֻ \ ִֻֻ \ (Like 17)

 

 

(2) Orientation to the communicative act whether the act is a statement or a mand-the communication may be INSISTENT, neutral, or RETICENT.

΄ ΄

(1)               - - \\\ (confident claim or suasion)

΄ ΄

(2)               - - \ (tentative claim or casual suasion)

΄ ΄

(3)               - - \\ (neither 1nor2)

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

(4)               - (command, exhortation, entreaty)

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

(5)               - -֍ ( instruction, suggestion, casual request)

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

(6)               - -֍ (Plain order, advice, request being 4nor 5)

 

(3)               Orientation to the addresseeAGGRESSIVE (warning, impatience, defiance, or the like), neutral, or CONCILIATORY (reassurance, patience, submission or the like).

΄ ΄ ΄

1.                  - ֱ - (aggressive)

΄ ΄ ΄

2. - - \\ (conciliatory)

 

 

(4)               Orientation to the speakerINVOLVEMENT (commitment, excitement, or the like,) neutral, or DISENGAGEMENT (non committal attitude boredom, or the like.)

΄ ΄

1.                  - - (involvement)

΄ ΄

2.                  - - (disengagement)

So far we have dealt with notions that operate globally. There are other notions that operate at the local level with the phrase or the word or, less commonly, the particle or the formative.

 

Considerations of the tempo of utterance and of the distinction between figure and ground in the sentence gestalt govern the distribution of attention. Specific sentence elements or phrase elements may be subjected to FOREGROUNDING or to BACKGROUNDING.

 

Examples:

΄ ΄

1.      ֬־ - \\

΄

2.      -- \\

΄ ΄ ΄

3.      ֬־ ֻ \\

΄ ΄

4.      - ֻ \\

 

Here the foregrounding of ֬־ may be contrasted with the back grounding of and the foregrounding of ֻ may be contrasted with the back grounding of .

 

Which element receives topical focus or which element receives scriptive focus depends on global considerations. But there is room for local focus also and it either may be independent o9f global focus (whether topical or scriptive) or may reinforce global focus. The local focus may be EXCLUSIVE or neutral or INTENSIVE.

 

Exclusive focus conveys exclusion of alternatives within the scope of positive polarity and the possibility of alternatives within the scope of negative polarity.

 

Examples:

΄ ΄ ΄

1.      - ֻ- - \\ (of that particular kind)

΄ ΄ ΄

2.      - ֻ- - \ (of that kind, but not of other kinds)

΄ ΄ ΄

3.      \ (not just one, but many more)

΄ ΄ ΄

4.      ߅ (not that one, but maybe others)

΄ ΄ ΄

5.      ߟ ם -ߟ ׾ָ֓ \

 

Intensive focus conveys that the requirement is fulfilled to excess if within the scope of positive polarity and that the requirement ifs far from fulfilled if within the scope of negative polarity.

 

Examples:

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

1.      ֻ ֻ ֐֤ ꅅ (exactly of that kind not roughly of that kind)

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

2.      - - - (not even one, let alone two or more)

 

3.      ӟӟ ָָ

 

It will be noticed that we have consistently avoided the rather vague term emphasis (and its opposite deemphasis) Perhaps we could now bring together the very different kinds of emphasis and deepmphasis for a tabulated review. (See Table 4.)

 

 

Table 4

Varieties of Emphasis and Deemphasis

 

 

Emphasis

Deemphasis

 

Global

CONCLUSIVE

INCONCLUSIVE

Function

INSISTENT

AGGRESSIVE

INVOLVEMENT

RETICENT

CONCILIATORY

DISENGAGEMENT

 

Global

SCRIPTUM

TOPOS

 

Structure

SCRIPTIVE

FOCUS

TOPICAL

FOCUS

SCRIPTIVE

residue

TOPICAL

residue

Local

FOREGROUNDING

BACKGROUNDING

Focus

EXCLUSIVE

neutral

 

INTENSIVE

neutral

 

The Collation of Phonological Form and Notional Form

 

We shall first take up the notional forms by turn and indicate their vehicles as selected from the central phonology of prosodies. (We may note in passing that in Marathi the prosodies operate in association with grammatical restructuring, overt order, the use of ֯֝ in place of as the 1st person pronoun in TOPICAL FOCUS, and sentential parties like , /, ֡, , ֝, ߻, ָߍ, ָ, ָ, ֻ֯ and like , ,)

 

The boundary between the TOPOS and the SRIPTUM is indicated by the dividing of the sentence into two-tone groups separated by a sentence-medial juncture. In the absence of the boundary, the whole sentence is the script-um with the to-pos remaining implicit or even wholly tacit.

 

The SCRIPTIVE FOCUS is marked by the tone nucleus in the nuclear tone group. It is associated with Reinforced Front or End Shift and with global negation, global or focal question, and focal exclamation. (A reinforced shift is one in which the shifting sentence element takes the verb along with it)

 

The topical focus is marked by the tone nucleus in the marginal tone group.

 

 

A marginal tone group (INCONCLUSIVE if embedded and CONCLUSIVE if additive) or follow the nuclear tone group (with echo tone, and, in case it is embedded rather than additive, with pitch squeeze).

 

Examples:

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

֐֭ ֻ- \ - \\

΄ ΄ ΄ ΄

֐ ֻ- \ - \\

΄ ΄ ΄

- \\ \\

΄ ΄ ΄

- \\ \\

 

The two pairs of examples illustrate Front Shift and End Shift respectively.

 

CONCLUSIVE and INCONCLUSIVE are conveyed by fall tones and rise tones respectively. INCONCLUSIVE in a marginal tone group with echo tone is conveyed by a pitch squeeze.

 

INSISTENT, neutral, and RETICENT are conveyed by reinforced, steep, and gradual tones respectively. By reinforced tones are meant extra-steep and reversed tones.

 

ACCRESSIVE, neutral, and conciliatory are conveyed by pitch stretch, unmodified tone, and pitch squeeze respectively.

 

(a)                respectively by Reversed, un-reinforced, and Extra-steep tones if CONCLUSIVE is present;

(b)               respectively by Reversed, un-reinforced, and Extra-steep tones if INCONCLUSIVE; is present

 

With a word, FOREGROUNDING is conveyed by phrase-nuclear accent and BACKGROUNDING is conveyed by assigning it only phrase-marginal accents.

 

Examples:

΄ ΄

--־ \\

There is a certain amount of flexibility about the attachment of a backgrounded phrase

 

With a sentence BACKGROUNDING is conveyed by assigning it a marginal tone group.

 

Some backgrounded words and formatives may appear in special rapid tempo forms: ם (ni, an, n,) , , ָ (ta), ֐ (ma), -- (-l) ֵ՟ (porint)

 

EXCLUSIVE, neutral, and INTENSIVE are conveyed by tension fall, unmodified accent, is associated with scriptive focus and inconclusive Intensive is associated with conclusive and involvement. Many words have special intensive forms. Thus, has , .

 

Next we shall take up peripheral features, namely, peripheral articulations, peripheral voice modifiers, peripheral voice qualities, peripheral pauses, and peripheral carriers and fillers by turn and indicate their expressive or functional value.

 

Rapid tempo (about 200 words per minute) expresses informality hurry and functional value. Slow tempo (about 100 words or less per minute) expresses deliberation, tenderness, hesitation, and reticent anger and functions as a time gainer.

 

High register expresses confidence, anger, excitement and functions as a loud-volume-reinforce. Low register expresses patience, diffidence, fear, and functions as a soft-volume-reinforce.

 

Loud volume expresses confidence, anger, intimidation, aggression, and functions as a promoter of the salience of the sign-vehicle against noise or distance and also as an icon of large size. Soft volume expresses ingratiation, tenderness and functions as a demotes of salience to prevent broadcast.

 

Abrupt prosodic transition (in pitch and loudness) functions as a reinforce of pitch stretch and precise articulation. Smooth prosodic transition) in pitch and loudness) expresses reticent confidence in oneself, ingratiation.

 

Precise articulation (in transition and targeting ) expresses insistent confidence in oneself, sense of the importance of the message and functions as a salience-promoter against channel noise. Slurred articulation ( in transition and targeting) expresses lack of care for successful communication, indifference, boredom, drunken state, old-age infirmity, and functions as a salience-demote for an embarrassing message (a cover up).

 

Nasalization expresses plaintive-ness, warning and functions as a reinforce of wawization.

 

Ionization expresses impudence, exasperation, jeering, annoyance and is associated with loss of dignity, partial or full tongue protrusion.

 

Wawizatio expresses a regressive desire to be petted and coddled, plaintive-ness, defensiveness against possible blame for ones error or misdeed.

 

Enlarged pharynx voice (booming) expresses insistent earnestness and functions as a voice-projector for broadcast and a reinforce for heavy voice quality.

 

Whisperization expresses shared confidences and functions as a demote of salience to prevent broadcast.

 

Falsetto voice functions as a mimicry of female and juvenile voice quality.

 

Aspirated voice functions as a mimicry of whisperization (as on the stage or in sharing confidences).

 

Lax larynx voice expresses or mimics a drunken state.

 

Tense larynx voice expresses disapproval and functions as a reinforce of precise articulation. Combined with low register (rasping voice) expresses tenderness, reassurance.

 

Light voice quality expresses tenderness, reassurance.

 

Sharp voice quality expresses insistent claim on attention and functions a salience--promoter or a voice projector.

 

Mellow voice quality expresses reassurance.

 

Heavy voice quality functions as an icon attention-getter for the portion of the message that follows.

 

Medial pause function as an attention-getter for the portion of the message that follows.

 

Final pause expresses deliberation.

 

Silence pause expresses greater deliberation, hesitation, diffidence, and functions as a device for gaining time.

 

The carriers , convey positive and negative polarity respectively. The carrier convey inclusive questions. The carrier and are respectively associated with nasalization and yodization (as marginal articulations).

 

The filler functions as a voiceprojector for a call. The fillers expresses ingratiation. The fillers , express hesitation, deference ad function as filler of non-functional silence and as a device for gaining time

 

Finally. One may note an extra-slow tempo (about 50 words per minute) with syllable foregrounding for spelling put and dictation, and also note the expressive use of the glottal catch.

 

Examples:

΄ ΄ ΄

\\ (for ֟. օ)

΄

? \ .

΄

և? \

 

 

Stylistic Implications

 

In the South Asian linguistic area the Marathi prosodic system is intermediate between the more crisp-sounding Indo-Aryan languages and the more singsong Dravidian languages. There are probably prosodic zones cutting across language families. More careful comparative work is needed. The voice of Marathi-speaking children and women is not as sharp in quality or as high in normal pitch range as is the case in some other parts of the world.

 

A person may have more than one speech style, but more commonly he has only one. A speech style is characterized by the following among other things

 

(a)               the fixation of forms such a the mid pitch level, the unmodified pitch range, normal tempo (about 150 words per minute), normal volume, and so on;

(b)               the predilection for emphasis or reemphasis (see Table 4 earlier) as the case may be:

(c)                the distribution of set features(typically. voice quality, prosodic transition, articulator transition and targeting), controllable features, and mannerisms (sporadic individual peculiarities and preferences being controllable features behaving like set features.)

 

 

The distinction between set and controllable feature is a fuzzy one in that people can and do mimic each other (set ---> controllable) and people are conditioned by body states, body properties, and nurture (controllable ---> set ; thus the set nasal twang of some people). An example of a mannerism is for someone to use a filler like all the time without any hesitation to show for it.

 

Both among speech sets and among speech styles one comes across certain recurrent and even recognized syndromes. A case in point is the so-called ֍֍ style in Marathi: it consists in tense larynx voice (no rasp), precise articulation, abrupt prosodic transition, stretched pitch range and loudness range, and so on; it is associated with middle-aged upper-caste females confident of their own wisdom and the folly of their peers (actually it may, of course, be found in a six-year-old female); and it evokes responses ranging from submission through amusement to irritated response in kind.

 

 

pedagogic Implications

 

Evidently not every cog and wheel in the whole fascinating machinery is crucial to such obvious requirements as intelligibility, acceptability, specific expressivities (such as a certain projection of personality), or specific functionality (such as the needs of a public announcer or a social worker, a stage actor or a platform speaker). Actually a fair number of native speakers of Marathi get by with hand-to-mouth prosodic equipment (no speech style to peak of) just as others get by with impoverished vocabulary or characterless hand writing.

 

A teaching programme will do well to spend more time, effort, and ingenuity on the essentials and leave other things for a later, more advanced phase of not to exposure-learning (even a badly speaking teacher becomes a model, so.), usable learning transfer from another language that the learner controls better, and the learners native learning ability. Thus, the peripheral phonology programme safely ignored in the essential programme (they will learn to laugh, shout and so forth in Marathi in any case though not always in the right place and moment); and so can some portions of the central phonology and the corresponding notional network. To be specific, the reinforced tones and pitch stretch can wait but the accent modifiers, pitch squeeze, and the un-reinforced rise/fall contrast cannot. Correspondingly involvement/ disengagement, aggressive/ conciliatory can wait but exclusive/intensive, foregrounding/back-grounding, conclusive/ inconclusive and, probably, insistent/ reticent cannot.

 

Secondly, a teaching programme will do well to avoid the more common over-simplifying shortcuts, such as a vague use of the term emphasis, the equating of statements, demands, and focal questions with the conclusive fall and that of global questions, calls, greetings, wishes with the inconclusive rise and accepting poor and half-hearted phonetic approximations of the phonological essentials. Equally to be shunned is the opposite shortcut-to launch into abstract descriptions of the notions rather than letting the learners internalize them through a large number of judiciously chosen examples with just the minimum of suggestive comment and glossing (such as and none other for exclusive in positive polarity.)

 

Thirdly, while some of the phonological and phonetic fundamentals are best taught in conjunction with the vowels and consonants (such as running through la/la/, la^, la or l aˇ lā, la-), the notional essentials and the collations are perhaps best taught in close conjunction with syntax and the use of the sentence particles (like )

 

Colophon

 

I must thank Dr. K. Nagamma Reddy (Osmania University) and Mr. K. Vijay (Laboratory Technician, Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages) for providing me with pitch, intensity, and wave form mingograms (a double set on Visipitch and transipitch respectively) of twenty selected Marathi utterances recorded by the author in January 1988. The interpretations are the authors alone. Except for this and other brief laboratory explorations, the study is based largely on the authors ear analysis of his own speech and on his informal observation of Marathi speakers and listeners within earshot spread over three decades.

 

And, of course. I am greatly indebted to the many pioneers who have preceded me in the veritable minefield of the phonetic and phonological analysis of prosodies and of relevant notional analysis.

 

The present study is no more than a second approximation (the first approximation appeared as brief sections in the authors 1958 doctoral dissertationsome of the hunches there have been developed and refined, while others have been rejected and departed from). Apart from the evident possibility of a better reanalysis, extensive systematic field and laboratory testing of speakers and listeners is needed.

 

The was published in Bulletin of the Deccan College Postgraduate& Reasearch Institute 51-52: 289-302, 1991-92 (published 1993)