KASHMIRI
WORD PHONOLOGY : A FIRST SKETCH
0.
Introduction
1.
The inventory of phonemes
2.
The contrasts illustrated
3.
Noteworthy phonetic correlations
4.
Some noteworthy distributional limitations
5.
Orthographic recommendations
0.
Kashmiri is an Indo-Iranian language2 spoken by about 1.5
million persons3 in the Kashmir Valley area of the state
of Jammu and Kashmir.
At various times it has been reduced to writing in the Śāradā,
the Devānagarī the Gurumukth, and the Perso-Arabic scripts
(the first three being closely related). Today Kashmiri stands recognized in the language
schedule of the Constitution of India and is gradually coming into
its own. It is being used
on the radio, from the platform, and on the stage.
It can boast of an earlier literature, and even today books
of fiction and poetry and magazines (though no newspapers) are being
published in the Perso-Arabic script.
However, Kashmiri speakers still favour Urdu as a language
of literary and public life: it is the official language of the State.
Although quite a few modern descriptions of Kashmiri phonology and phonetics4
are available, it was decided that this study is best presented as
a fresh start for what it is worth. So no attempt will be made to correlate our findings with the previous
results and explain the differences.
The variety of Kashmiri described here
is the one used at the present by educated people in Srinagar, the
capital city.5 To its speakers the language is known as
/kә:ur/. The description is confined to the phonologic
word bounded by what will presumably turn out to be pus junctures
in the framework of the analysis of the complete utterance.6
1.
Kashmiri has the following segmental phonemes.
The vowel list should be augmented with /:/ which does
not fit in and which occurs as a free variant of / ә: / in
English loanwords.
In addition, we have a co articulation
phoneme, nasalization /~/,
which occurs with vowels. There
are no accentual contrasts within a phonologic word. Phonetically, the accent always falls on the first syllable.7
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Bilabial
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Apical
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Apical retroflex
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Alveolar aibilant
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Palatal sibilant
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Velar
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Glottal
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Plosive voiceless
unaspirated
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P
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t
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ṭ
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c
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č
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k
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Aspirated
Voiced unasp.
Nasal voiced
|
Ph
b
m
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th
d
n
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ṭh
ḍ
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ch
3
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ch
ǯ
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kh
g
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Fricative vls
Lateral voiced
Tremulant voiced
Friction vocoid
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l
r
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s
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h
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Note that / c ch З/ and /č čh ǯ / are all affricates homorganic with /s/ and /
/ respectively.
Semivowels
and vowels:
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Front
unrounded
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Non-front unrounded
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Back rounded
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Semi vowel
Vowel
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i
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ɨ
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u̯̇
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High
Mid
Low
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i
e
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i:
e:
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ɨ
ә
a
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ɨ:
ә:
a:
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u
o
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u:
o:
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2. The following sets cover most
initial contrasts involving consonants and semivowels:
/par/ mallet used by a woodcutter, /phar/ steal (vb.), 8
/bar/ door, /mar/ die (vb.)
/tar/ seedling, sprout, /thar/
back (of the body), /dar/ quantity weighed at a time,
/nar/ male; male human being.
/lar/ strand of the Hindu sacred
thread; side (of the body), Hindi karat, /ral/ mix
(vb. intransitive)
/tar/ idle talk, boast, /thari/
drink made from bhang, dar fear (vb.).
/car/ bedbug, /čhal/ trick
(sb.), /zar/ deafness, /sar/ lake (used especially with
proper names)
/čar/ prattle (sb.), /čhar/
urinate, defecate (vb.), /ǯal/
quick, /ar/ longing, wish; despair.
/kar/ do (vb.) ; trunk
(of an elephant), /khar/ ass; be unpleasant (vb.).
/gar/ inflammatory swelling of a lymph gland.
/har/ quarrel (sb.), /ial/ feminine
gesture of turning the head as a sign of disapproval, copyness, etc., /u̯ar/
sate of being twisted, /al/ gourd, pumpkin.
Similarly, for contrasts in the final
position:
/kap/ cup, / kaph / foam at the lips; cuff
(of a shirt), /tab/ chronic fever, /tam/ asthma.
/kat/ spin (vb). (thread), /kath / thing being talked
or thought about, Hindi bāt, /
/kad / mans stature,
height, /kan/ ear.
/kal/ yearing, / kar / do (vb.) : trunk
(of an elephant),
/hat/ move aside or back (vb.), / kath / sheep
/ kaḍ / take out (vb.)
/pac/ believe (vb) /kach / armpit, /haЗ
/ term of respectful address to a Muslim, /kas/ tighten
(vb.)
khač/ crowd (sb.), / kačh/ wild weed,
/haǯ/ pilgrimage
to Mecca, / ka / draw (in smoking tobacco) (sb.); distance to which something
is thrown.
/thank/ become tired (vb.), thakh/ pause for taking
rest (sb.), /chag/ drive away (vb.) (crowd, cattle).
/ka:h. / eleven. / na i̯
/ pipe of a hookah, naṷ/ nine,/ ma: / dont
: Hindi mat.
To the foregoing we may add the following airs; /ci̯aph/
evade (vb.). /čaph/ a telling upon,
Hindi cuglī.
/ pәci / they believed. / pәč / she
walked, / maci / mad (fem. sg. dative), / mači
/ earthen pots.
The following set covers vowel contrasts in final closed
syllables:
/khir/ sweetened
and thickened milk, /ti:r/ feather; arrow, / kir/
cracking sound, / k
ɨ:r/ wicked (fem.
sg.), / khur / tangle (sb.), / ku:r / daughter,
/ khe / bundle (of wool, currency
notes), / khe:1 / play (sb.),
/kar / beam, (of a
house). / kә:r / nape, / kor / bracelet, /ko:r/
where?
/kar/ do (vb.); trunk (of an elephant),
/ ka:r / work (Sb.), / ba:1/ ball (for playing),
be: ~th ba:ṭh
/ bat (for playing).
The following
set covers contrasts between semivowels and high vowels finally after
a consonant; /guri̯/
horses, /guri/ mares, /guri:/ horses alone, gurɨ:/ mare,/
house, ṷanu: / tell (2nd masc.
fem,. pl imperative), / nečuṷ/ son. / gur
/ horse.
Finally, contrasts involving nasalization
may be illustrated in: /
ḍ: / the cry of a cow or a calf,
/pa:m/ taunt (sb.), /pa:n / body, / pata: / knowledge;
whereabouts, address, / k:h
/ someone, /ka:h / eleven.
3. All
consonants (especially /nlr/) are palatalized before / ̯ i:
e e:/ (especially before /̯/,
in wHich case after vowels they also have a patal vocalic on-glide),
as in: / mec̯/ earth clay
(ablative), /maci/ mad (fem.
sg. dative). čəni/ your
(masc. pl. concord), /ča:ni/ your (fem.
pl. concord) čə:ni/ your
(fem. sg. concord) alone, /nečuṷ/son/ ṷane:/ tell (2 nd fem. sg. imperative).
/The palatal sibilants
(/č čh /) invariably have a palatal vocalic
off-glide.
All consonants (especially / k, kh
g/) are labiovelarized before / ṷ u u: / a, as in: /khṷar/ foot, /gur / horse, /gu:r / milkman.
All aspirated consonants are slightly
pre aspirated finally. The
phoneme /ph/ has a variant (f) in all positions in affected speech;
the variant is considered substandard.
The consonants /h / is (h ḫ) (voiceless
then voiced) initially, fully voiced elsewhere. Between a vowel and a consonant (/V-C/) or finally after a vowel ( / V - #),
/ h / is very lenis often nothing more than a glottal constructions
or a murmured, breathy quality of the preceding vowel; / həhə:r/
wifes brother, / ma:hra: / term of respectful address to
a Hindu, / teh / family pride of glory.
The Consonants /ḍ/
is rather lenis and flap-like (but never as much as, say, Hindi /ṛ/
) finally medially or before a non retroflex consonant. (In either case the rule does not apply, if
a nasalized vowel precedes.) Thus, lenis in
kad, take out (vb.) / gṷaḍni:/
at first. But not in : /mṷd / widow.
The tremulant /r/
is a minimual trill. (The
cotrast / r ṛ
ḍ/
involving a trilled and a flapped tremulant and a plosive is delidedly
substandard).
While the
apical plosives are dental, / n l r / are apical alveolar.
The semi vowel / ̯ / is
a (a) more consonant like when adjacent to a vowel, but (b) more
of an extra sort vowel that done not count phonemically as a syllable
elsewhere. The semi vowel ɨ/ occurs in positions of type (b) alone and
is normally an extra short vowel.
When preceded by / m n l r h/, however, it is signaled solely
or chiefly as the [ɨ])
like resonance of the preceding consonant? The semi vowel / ṷ/
occurs in positions of type (a) alone and is normally a monosyllabic
back rounded vocoid. Initially,
intervocalic ally, or finally, however, it is a labiodentals extra-lenis
fricative. (For illustrations, see. 4, below).
A long vowel in a non-final position
is phonetically the corresponding short vowel prolonged by an off-glide
in the direction of the mid central vowel ungrounded or rounded as
the case may be. Finally it
is a long monophthong. (For illustrations, see 2 and 4 respectively.)
The high vowels are somewhat lowered
finally. The mid vowels
are phonetically high-mid. The
vowel //
is low vowel / a/ is somewhat raised if preceded by
/c ̯ c ṷ/.
The non-front
unrounded vowels / ɨ ɨ: ə ə: / are
midway between central and
back. The vowels / a a: / are normally central.
All vowels other than the front ones are some what fronted
whine preceded by / ̯ / cr followed by /
̯ C ̯ Ci/
the in fronting is more pronounced in the sequence / C̯̯a/
The vowel /a:/ are back and rounded, when preceded by /Cṷ/
/
̯ a:r/ friend, /d̯a:r / money, / gur/̯
mare alone, / ur̯/ children,
/ /gobis/ heavy (masc. sg. Dative).
Note particularly the sequences /C
̯ a/ [Cj >] and /Cṷa:
/[Cwb^:], as in: /kh ̯ al / lotus leaf, /rial
/ strip (of cloth, paper/land) : kṷal / rivulet,
/dṷad
/ milk, sṷa:d. one-and-a-guarder.
All vowels
are slightly nasalized when followed by a nasal consonant. Between a vowel accompanied by /~/ and a following
plosive there is inserted a short nasal consonant homorganic with
the plosive.10 The nasal is especially short when the nasalised
vowel is long. /
b/ mango, / ḍ:b/
pretence, excuse, /st/ saint, /dd/
tooth, /d :d/
bull, / mṷḍ / widow / ch:th
/ skill in swimming, / p ə̃:ch
/ five, / l : / stigma, / r g / color,
/ e:kh
/ conch shell, /b:k ~ b ə̃ :k / bank (financial establishment).
4.
All consonants can occur initially before a vowel, intervocalic
ally, and finally after a vowel.
No consonant is geminated.
Initial and final consonant clusters are not unknown but rare:
/ tre: / thirst,
/ bram / illusion, /host ~ hos / elephant.
The contrast between unaspirated and
aspirated voiceless plosives is not very stable in the final position. The aspirates tend to very with the corresponding
unaspirted plosives in rapid familiar style: / tap ~ taph / religious
penance, Skt. tapas, / taph - tap / fever. Consonants and semivowels in consonant like
positions are never followed by /h/ (It is consequently possible to
interpret the unit phonemes / ph th ṭh ch čh
kh / of the present analysis as clusters respectively of /p/ etc.,
and /h/.)
The privileges of occurrence of the
semivowels are as follows: /̯ / in V- /, /-V/ and /C-C/,
/C-ṷ/, /C-#/; /ɨ
/ in /C-##/; / ṷ / in /V-/, /-V/, /-
̯ V/ illustrations follow arranged according to positions:
/V-#/ : me I / me (dative) alone, /gur
ɨ i/ mare alone, / a: ̯ / place,
/bo:
̯/ brother; /kəriṷ
/ do (2nd honorific
imperative), / ka:ṷ
/ crow, /ne čuṷ / son.
/V-C / : / ̯ ṷnuk
/ firstborn (not many examples can be found).
/V-V/ : /
ṷər ̯ ɨ /year (ablative),
/siri
̯ ̯i/ sun. / la: ̯ un/
to strike; / m ̯ a: ṷ ɨ i/ fruit (sg. pl.), / a:
ṷ a:3/ voice.
/# - V/ : / ̯ i
/ you (masc. sg.) come / ̯ e:r/ wool for knitting,
/ ̯ am /Yama, the Hindu
god of death; / ṷ ath /path, /
ṷoch / calf. / ṷ o:t/ he came.
/C-V/ : b̯eni
/ sister, / dar̯akṭar / director,
/ b
̯ o:1/ seed; / k ṷ al / rivulet, /
sur
ṷ un/ to scour (pots) with ash, g
ṷ abi / heavy fem, pl.).
/ ̯ V
/ : pəkṷ
ɨ / you
(masc. pl.) went.
/ ṷ -V
/ : ṷoṭh
/ fat (masc. sg.)
/ _ iV/ : ṷ̯oth
/ fat (masc. sg.)
/C-/ : /gur̯/
horses, gur̯/ mare
/C-C/: buḍibab
/ grandfather.
/C-
ṷ / : pə k̯ṷu ɨ / you (masc. pl.)
went.
In certain environments there is no contrast between the semivowel
and its absence: (a) a vowel is never followed by /i i:/ or / u u:
/ without an intervening /
̯
/ or / ṷ / respectively; (b) initially the pairs / o
ṷo
/, /o ṷo:
/contrast frequently, but i: ̯i:̯/ ,/ e ̯e/,/e: ̯e:/,/
/u: ṷu:/
only rarely so (initial /e
e:/ being very rare and with the other pairs free variation being
the normal rule); (c) out of these eight
pairs only / u ṷu/,
/ e ̯
e/ contrast after a consonant, the second member being missing with
the rest; (d) in the final position
/i
̯ i: ̯ u: ṷ/ do
not occur, but / uṷ / does in contrast with u: / :
(e) the palatal sibilants (/č čh ̯
/)
are never followed by / ̯
ɨ / ; (f)
the sequence eC*# / never occurs,
but eC* i#/ does (where Ĉ*? stands for a consonant other than
a palatal sibilant or / h
/). Illustrations follow:
(a)
/ b ̯ e ̯
i / again, / thaṷn / to put, place.
(b) / on / blind /masc. s./, / ṷonun
/ he told; /o:r/ thither, / ṷo:r/
prattle (vb); / istər̯̯
/ flatiror / ̯i/ you masc. sg) come,
/ t: rar ~ ̯insain / human being ; /i a:c / invention,
/ ̯i:run
/ to float, / i:rar
̯i:ar
/ God : / ečkan ačkan / kind
of close-collared coat, Hindi
ackan, / ̯eti / here / e:s
̯ +te:s ̯ ~e:si + te: si/ so so. /̯e:r / wool for
knitting, ukɨ
+/ one (as a count in certain childrens games, / ṷur/
eat gluttonously (vb. ), / ṷuṭh
/ lip; / u:r ̯ / thither, / ṷu:r/
T-shaped cast used in making
a double cṷlha, / ũ:
ṭh ṷũ:
ṭh / camel.
(c) Parun / to read, / surṷun
/to scour (pots) with ash; / nečuṷ/
son, /b̯̯eni / sister.
(d) / ṷanu : / tell (2nd masc. fem. pl. impertive),
/ nečuṷ
/ son.
(e) Thus, / gob / heavy (masc. sg.), / gob̯̯
/ heavy (masc. pl.)/ gob ̯ɨ
/ heavy (fem.sg. ) are all matched paradigmatically by / boačh
/ hungry, gluttonous (masc. sg. pl. and fem. sg.).
(f) khel̯ flock
(of sheep), but khe / bundle (of wool, currency notes),
/ tech / family pride or glory.
The vowels / ɨ
ɨ: / never occur initially; /e e:/ rarely so.
In the final position, only the following vowels occur - /i
i: ɨ: u:e:o:a:/ ( note that there
is only one contrast of length),
as in : / guri / horses,
/guri : / horses alone. /garɨ/
house, / ṷanu : / tell (2nd masc.
fem. pl. imperative), /kere:/ he who may do, /pako: walk
(vb.), /pata:/ knowledge; whereabouts, address.
There is no contrast of vowel length before / h / with one
exception - /a a:/ contrast in / - hV/.
Hus : kih / tangle of hair
separated from the head, / khih / scratch,
(sb.). uh / ache (sb.)s / the /
family pride or glory, /kəh
/ touchstone, /koh / mountain, /ka:h / eleven,
/kathnɨ ̯
/ eleven (dative) alone; but : / ahar ~ aha:r
/ city, /ka:han/ eleven (dative).
A vowel accompanied by / ~ / is never followed by a nasal
consonant any of the fifteen vowels may be accompanied by /~./.
There
is no contrast between /
̀Ṽgˋ/
and /Vn/ before a plosive the latter does not occur in that
position. Thus, apparent contrasts between /
Ṽgˋ/ and /Vng/ turn put to be contrasts
between /Vg/ and /Vn+g/ :/ ka:glr/ small earthern brazier carried in a willow frame. / ṷan ṷan+gər/
woman who is paid to sing at
weddings, etc. / a:n+
gaṷ/
better will be.
5. Byway of concluding, we should like
to propose the following rendering of Kashmiri into Roman and Devanagari
for everyday purposes.
(Compare these tables
with those in 1)
Consonants:
|
P
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t
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ṭ
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cˊ
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c
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|
k
|
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Ph
|
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th
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|
ṭh
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cˊh
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ch
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kh
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b
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d
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d,
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jˊ
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|
j
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g
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m
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n
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s
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sh
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l
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r
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h
|
Note that the use of sh for //
will not lead to any ambiguity.
Semi vowels and vowels:
|
y
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and
|
i
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ŭ
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v
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i
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i:
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:
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u:
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|
e
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e:
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0:
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o:
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a
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a
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The two forms of the semi vowel /̯/ are to be used respectively
in positions adjacent to a vowel and elsewhere. The vowel / :/ will be
rendered as :
Nazalisation will be rendered as m#
˙ respectively following and above the vowel symbol.
The virāma (-) may be used with
a consonant letter or in Devanagari only when followed by another
consonant letter or .
Word final no syllabics followed by space or hyphen need not
take it, since a phonologic word will never end with /a/
Whenever there is a free variation
initially between / i, ̯ i/. Etc the variant without the
semivowel will be preferred.
Some examples follow:
/ kach / kac΄h
armpit,
/ kačh
/ kach wild weed
/gur / gur horse,
/gur̯
/ gurĭ horses
/ gurɨ
/ gurŭ mare
/ guri / gurĭ: mares
/ gari: / gari hourses
alone
/ gar
ɨ / gar house
/ nečuṷ / necuv
son
/gur̯e
̯ / gurvey 㯵 mars alone
/ siri̯i
/ siriyi sun.
/ pək ̯ṷɨ
/ pkĭv
you (masc. pl) went
/ ũ:ṭh ũ:ṭh
/ u:ṃṭh
camel
/bi:k b ə̃:k/
b:mk
~ ba: mk bank
/ siṭe
: san / site : shan ֭֙ railway sation
/ i̭ e; has:
/ ye:hea:n ֭ favor,
good turn
/ie:haa: n / shabud _ֲ word
/d: +kuth+ / da:m - kurthu_- paddy store
/ kesi:r / kashi:r _ӿ߸ Kashmir
/ ke:
ur / ka : shur ӿ
Kashmiri (language, male person)
/ nəhə:r / naha: r̯ the family name Nehru
/trɨchɨl/tr chl
ͻ
the family name Trisal
/ siriɨ:nagar
/ siri :-nagar _-ָ Srinagar
This writing system can be used, for example, in teaching Hindi
speakers to speak Kashmiri, in rendering Kashmiri proper names into
Roman or Devanagari, in the publications of Sahitya Akademi.
If ever, Devanagiri or Roman wereto be used as a regular script
for Kashmiri. Then possibly some adjustments may have to
be made to its complicated morphophonemic.
NOTES:
1. This paper is based on work preparatory to PNTs projected
Ph.D. thesis on Kashmiri morphology.
ARK is chiefly responsible for the formulation and PNT. Who is a native speaker of Kashmiri, for the
preliminary sifting of the data.
The authors are grateful to the Hindi Institute for this opportunity for collaborative work. Since the writing of this paper.
ARK has changed his affiliation to Deccan College and University
of Poona, Poona, Maharashtra , India.
2. In Hindi-Urdu the name of the language
is kāśmīrī ~ kāsmīrī. In calling it Indo-Iranian, we are simply bypassing
the controversy, not relavant to our present purpose, as to whether
the so-called Dardic grou formed by Kashmiri and a few other obviously
closely related languages is a division of Indo-Iranian coordinate
with Iranian and Indo-Aryan (indic) or whether it is only a subdivision
of the latter.
3. No authoritative and at the same
time sufficiently recent figures are available. For the estimate given here, we are indebted to professors Prithvi
Nath Pushp, who was also kind enough to read an earlier draft of this
paper and offer many helpful comments.
4.The following list is probably exhaustive:
G. A. Grierson, A manual of the Kāshmīrī language comprising grammar, phrasebook and
vocabulatries, in 2 vols. Oxford Oxford University Press, 1911 especially
vol. I, ch. 1 (pp. 14-2) Grierson uses a slightly different vowel
system in his A dictionary of the Kashmiri language, Bibliotheca Indica,
229, in 4 parts, Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1916-32.
The findings of the Manual are summarized in his Linguistic
survey of India, vol. 8, pt.2 Specimens of the Dardic or Piśacha languages
(including Kāshīmīr_),
Calcutta, Government of India, 1919.
Section on Kashmir (pp 233-341), especially Pronounciation,
pp. 257-68).
T. Grahame Bailey. The fourfold consonant
system in kashmiri, Proc. Of the 2nd internat. Congr, of phonet, sec. London, 1935 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University press, 1936), pp. 182-84.
Discusses the four-way contrast /-C C ̯ C ɨ C ɨ -C ṷ
/ ( see in 9 below).
T. Grahame Balliery, The pronunciation
of Kashmiri: Kashmiri sounds, how to make them and how to transcribe
them, James G. Forlong Fund series, 16, London: Royal Asiatic Society,
1937, especially part I Description of the sounds (pp. 1-14).
J.R. Firth, (SpecimenJ
Kashmiri (kr ur), Le matr phontique, N. 68.
67-8 (Oct. Dec. 1939). Transcribes
a Kashmiri rendering of the story of the North Wind and the Sun, with
an all too brief note based on a tentative analysis.
Georg Morgenstierne, The phonology
of Kashmiri, Acta orientalia (Leiden: Bril) 19. 79-99 (1943). Has benefited
from Roman Jakobsons many valuable suggestions; something intermediate
in purpose between a fresh analysis based on work with an informant
and a phonematic restatement of Grierson.
Grierson mixed up transliteration of
conventional orthographies, honetic transcription, phonology, and
morphophonemics, Bailey is the strongest of the four in phonetics
and occasionally makes distributional statements, Firth probably ignores
some contrasts; even the phonetic identifications are not consistent: he says that h and h are distinctive. Moregenstierne has a phonemic approach, but
his study is marred by an uncertainty of purpose and an unsure hold
over the data in its phonetic and distributional aspects.
Altogether none of these studies is easy to interpret.
5. Colloquial speech is, of course,
to be understood here. PNT
and his wife, Mrs. Jaikishori Shivpuri, whose speech was analyzed,
are both Hindu and residents of Srinagar.
It is claimed, however, that at the phonologic level there
are no serious difference between educated Hindu and educated Muslims,
if one leaves aside the speech of some scholars of Sanskrit and of
Arabic and Persian.
6. In the words of A, E, Sharp, the
first sketch is simply an analysis of one-word utterances as a
small-scale preliminary try-out in preparation for an attach on full-grown
sentences (Stress and juncture in English, Trans. Of the Philol.
Soc. London 1960 (1961) 104-35, p. 107)
7.
More accurately, when a single phonologic word along with the
intonation of neutral statement constitutes the complete utterance,
most of the fall in pitch seems to take place during the first vowel
phoneme in the word. Presumably the phonetic correlates of other
intonation contours are similarly referable to the first syllable
and longer utterances do not bring in contrasts depending on the
position of accent within a phonologic word.
8. All forms marked (vb.) represent
the 2nd, masc. fem., sg. Of the imperative unless otherwise
described.
9. The readers should perhaps be warned at this point that
for a non native listener it is rather difficult to hear /-C/ and
/-Cɨ̭
/.) apart, and that more work in the field and the laboratory
is called for in order to investigate the three-way contrast / -C
Ci̭,
-Cɨ̭
/) (A two way pair
test was administered to the two informants (fn. 5)
and the results left no doubt that the contrast exists.) Traditionally / i̭ ɨ̭
/ (and also /ṷ / in their syllabic allophones (as extra short
vowels) have been called mātrā
vowels. (Syllabic / u / does
not survive in the variety described in this paper.)
10. The decision to treat the nasalization as phonemic
and the homorganic nasal as its predictable consequence may have to
be reversed in view of items like (garge ɨ̭) headgear used by married
or widowed Kashmiri women (which can them to phonemicized as/ targngɨ̭
/ by the side of / amb sant mṷand pə;nch rang / and
the like).
COLOPHON:
This
was published in Anthropological linguistics 6: 1: 13-22, January
1964.
