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4.1 SEGMENTAL PHONEMESThe phonemic system of Laria is made up of fourtyone segmental phonemes of which twelve are vowel and twentyone are consonants. The inventory of segmental phonemes is as follows:

Vowels

Front unrounded BackUnrounded Back rounded
Oral Nasal Oral Nasal Oral Nasal
High i i u u)
Mid e o
Lower Mid e E)  )
Low a ã

Consonants

The consonant phonemes of Laria may be classifie on the basis of the manner and points of articulation, as given in the following chart. The vertical columns show the place of articulation and the horizontal rows, the manner of articulation.

Bilabial labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatal Retroflex Velar Glottal
Stops
vls unasp p t t? k
vls asp ph th t? h k h
vd unasp b d d? g
vd asp bh dh d? h gh
Affricates
vls unasp c
vls asp ch
vd unasp j
vd asp jh
Fricatives
vls s
vd
Nasal m n n? ?
Laterials l
Trill r r?
Flap
Semi-vowels y

4.1.1 Description of distinctive segments

The description of distinctive segments can be done under two categories Non-syllabic and syllabic.

4.1.1.1 Non-syllabics

4.1.1.1.1 Stops

[p] is a voiceless unaspirated bilabial stop. [pap] 'sin', [pa:kh] 'near', [kpa] 'cotton'.

[ph] is a voiceless aspirated bilabial stop. [phl] 'fruit', [r)pha] 'digging instrument', [brph] 'snow/ice'.

[b] is a voiced unasipirated bilabial stop. [bal] 'hair', [bhab] 'think', [kaba] 'surprise'.

[bh] is a voiced aspirated bilabial stop. [bhalu] 'ghost', [labh] 'profit', [kebhe] 'when'.

[t] is a voiceless unaspirated dental stop. [tum] 'you', [chati] 'chest', [rkt] 'blood'.

[th] is a voiceless aspirated dental stop. [thuk] 'spit', [gu)th] 'weave', [ktha] 'talk'.

[t?] is a voiceless unaspirated retroflex stop. [t?ike] 'some', [pet?] 'belly', [chut?e] 'small'.

[th] is a voiceless aspirated retroflex stop. [thia] 'stand', [pith] 'back', [kuthri] 'room'.

[d] is a voiced unaspirated dental stop. [dukh] 'grief', [dda] 'elder brother', [khnd] 'shoulder'.

[dh] is a voiced unaspirated dental stop. [dhan] 'paddy', [bandh] 'paddy', [gdha] 'ass'.

[d?] is a voiced unaspirated retroflex stop. [d?m] 'name of a caste', [makd?] 'monkey', [nad?] 'egg'.

[d?h] is a voiced aspirated retroflex stop. [d?nd?hn] 'sound of metal', [lud? ha] 'grinding stone', [gd?h] 'fort'.

[k] is a voiceless unaspirated velar stop. [kun?a] rice husk', [thuk]'spit',[t?ike] 'some'.

[kh] is a voiceless aspirated velar stop. [khus] 'happy', [sukha] 'dry', [aE)kh] 'eye'.

[g] is a voiced unaspirated velar stop. [gun?a] 'powder', [sagua] 'green', [sag] 'leaf vegetable'.

[gh] is a voiced aspirated velar stop. [ghas] 'grass', [rugha] 'ill', [megh] 'cloud'.

[c] is a voiceless unaspirated palatal stop. [ca:l] 'walk', [krc] 'eating sound', [bica:r] 'decide / ponder'.

[ch] is a voiceless aspirated talatal stop. [chot?] 'small', [kcha] 'lion cloth', [gch] 'tree'.

[j] is a voiced unaspirated palatal stop. [jibh] 'tongue', [ujn] 'heavy', [khuji] 'search'.

[jh] is a voiced aspirated palatal stop. [pnjha] 'claw', [jhuri] 'fish', [bojh] 'burden'.

3.3.1.1.1 Fricatives

[s] is a voiceless alveolar fricative. [sukha] 'dry', [psu] 'animal', [sãs] 'breath'.

[h] is a voiceless glottal fricative. [hs] 'laugh', [kuhuri] 'fog', [h] 'oh'.

3.3.1.1.2 Nasals

[m] is a voiced bilabial nasal. [makd?] 'monkey', [lma] 'long', [ghm] 'wheat'.

[n] is a voiced alveolar nasal. [na:k] 'nose', [kusna] 'rice beer', [dhan] 'rice'.

[n?] is a voiced retroflex nasal. [kun?a] 'rice husk', [khn? - khn?] 'pieces'.

[?] is a voiced velar nasal. [r?] 'paint', [sa?ge] 'with'.

3.3.1.1.3 Liquids

[1] is a voiced alveolar lateral. [le] 'take', [klia] 'black', [la:l] 'red'.

[r] is a voiced apico - alveolar trill. [raja:] 'king', [brcha] 'spear', [pthr] 'stone'.

[r?] is voiced retroflex tap. [bar?i] 'stick', [kpr?a] 'cloth', [kur?] 'dig'.

3.3.1.1.4 Glides

[y] is a voiced dorso - palatal semivowel. [pyaj] 'onion', [myur] 'peacock'.

4.1.1.1.2 Contrast of Minimal Pairs

4.1.1.2.1 Voiceless vs Voiced

/p:b/ /pa:l/ 'to raise' /kpa/ 'cotton' /bhap/ 'vapour'
/ba:/ 'hair' /kba/ 'dumb struck' /bhab/ 'think'

/ph:bh/ /phl/ 'fruit'
/bhl 'nice'

/t:d/ /tum/ 'you' /lt/ 'falling sound'
/dum/ 'sound of heavy feel' /ld/ 'load'
/lta/ 'creeper'
/lda/ 'loaded'

/th:dh/ /thuk/ 'spit' g)tha/ 'weaved'
/dhuk/ 'fan' /gdha/ 'ass'

/k:g/ /kun?a/ 'rice husk' /thk/ 'knock' /ruka/ 'raw'
/gun?a/ 'dust' /thg/ 'cheat' /ruga/ 'a little hot'

/kh:gh/ /kha:r/ 'ash' /rkhu/ 'Let him keep'
/gha:r/ 'scribble' /rghu/ 'name'

/c:j/ /ca:l/ 'walk' /bca/ 'save' /khuc/ 'spear'
/ja:l/ 'net' /bja/ 'drum' /khuj/ 'search'

/ch:jh/ /chn chn/ 'sound of ornaments' /brcha/ 'spear'
/jhn jhn/ 'sound of metal' /brjha/ 'hit out'

4.1.1.2.2 Unaspirated vs Aspirated

/p:ph/ /pa:l/ 'to raise' /r)pa/ 'eroded/cleaned'
/pha:l/ 'piece' /r)pha/ 'digging instrument'

/b:bh/ /bul/ 'turn' /lebe/ 'take' /bhab/ 'think'
/bhul/ 'forget' /kebhe/ 'when' /la:bh/ 'profit'

/t:th/ /ta:l/ 'palm' /kta/ 'fiber' `but/ 'statue'
/tha:l/ 'tray' /ktha/ 'talk' /buth/ 'dip'

/t:th/ / t?ik t?ik/ 'clock' /pi:t?/ 'hit' /pit?is/ 'hit'
/ t?hik t?hik/ 'correct' /pi: t?h/ 'back' /pit?hi/ 'back'

/d:dh/ /dm/ 'strength' /kand/ 'cry' /dda/ 'brother'
/dhm/ 'thud' /kndh/ 'shoulder' /gdha/ 'ass'

/d:dh/ /d?m/ 'a caste' /gud?a/ 'fallowland'
/d?hn/ 'sound of metal' /lud?ha/ 'grinding stone'

/k:kh/ /ka:n/ 'ear' /luka/ 'hide' /pak/ 'ripe'
/kha:n/ 'mine' /sukha/ 'dry' /pakh/ 'near'

/g:gh/ /gr/ 'dog's growling' /suga/ 'pet' /sag/ 'leaf vegetable'
/ghr/ 'house' /rugha/ 'ill' /magh/ 'name of a month'

/c:ch/ /ca:l/ 'walk' /khrca/ 'expenditure' /r)c/ 'stain'
/cha:l/ 'skin' /brcha/ 'spear' /gch/ 'tree'

/j:jn/ /jn/ 'moon' /khuj/ 'search' /bujha/ 'explain'
/jhn 'metallic sound' /bujh/ 'understand' /muja/ 'socks

4.1.1.2.3 Nasals

/m:n/ /ma:t/ 'giddy' /ka:m/ 'work' /kma/ 'earn'
/na:t/ 'relation' /ka:n/ 'ear' /kna/ 'cloth'

/n:n/ /khn khn/ 'sound of metal' /kun?a/ 'rice husk'
/khn? - khn? 'pieces' /kuna/ 'boy child'

/n:?/ /san/ 'knead' /sane/ /Did you knead?'
/sa?/ 'friend' /sa?e/ 'with'

Trill

/r:r?/ /bari/ 'kitchen garden' /kur/ 'comb'
/bar?i/ 'stick' /kur?/ 'dig'

4.1.1.3 Syllabics

4.1.1.3.1 Vowels

The vowels are described here in the order given in the IPA chart starting with the high front vowel.

[i] is a short high front unrounded vowel. It occurs initially, medially and finally [ila] 'this', [sikar] 'meat', [chati] 'chest'

[e] is a shrt mid-front unrounded vowel. [khel] 'play [n]', [bhitre] 'in'

[e] is a short unrounded lower-mid front vowel [enta] 'like this', [khel] 'play (v)', [pne] 'he/she'

[a] is a short unrounded low back vowel. [a:n] 'bring', [pas] 'near', [kala] 'what'

[] is a short rounded lower-mid back vowel. [kr] 'his', [prbt] 'mountain' [k] 'say'

[o] is a short rounded mid back vowel. [ol] 'kind of potato', [cok] 'sharp'. [srlo] 'slippery'

[u] is a short rounded high back vowel. [ulta] 'upturned', [kuhuri] 'fog', [psu] 'animal'

In Laria, all the vowels can occur in all the positions, i.e., word initially, medially and finally.

4.1.1.4 Nasalisation

In the normal or oral articulation of vowels the soft palate is raised so that it blocks the nasal passage. If, however, the soft palate is lowered, the air can pass through the nose as well as the mouth, and the vowels so articulated are nasalised.

4.1.1.4.1 Phonemic Variation

Nasalisation in Laria is phonemic. The contrast of oral and nasal vowels is illustrated by the following examples:

/i/ /pi:/ 'drink' /pi:/ 'sound of a horn'
/lterihi/ 'take SING-3-CONT-PRE' /lterihi/ 'take PL-3-PRE-CONT'
/jahi/ 'go SING-3. CONT-PRE' /jahi/ 'go PL-3-PRE-CONT'

/e/ /de/ 'gave SING-2-PST', /dE)/ 'gave SING-1-PST'
/bhe/ 'bleeting of sheep', /bhE)/ 'sound of crying'
/hhae/ 'eat SING-2-PST', /khaE)/ 'eat SING-1-PST'

Nasalisation of vowel /e/ is used to distinguish between 1st person singular and 2nd person singular past.

/a/ /ga:/ 'singi, /gã/ 'village'
/rua/ 'cotton', /ruã/ 'fur'
/kakr/ 'whose', /kak#r/ 'cold'

/deha/ 'give PL-2-PRE-PERF' /dehã/ 'give SING-1-PRE-PERF'

Nasalisation o vowel /a/ is used to distinguish between the present perfect aspect of 1st person singular and 2nd person singular.

// /kp/ 'cup', /k#p/ 'tremble'
/kl/ 'tap', /k#l/ 'soft'
/deth/ 'give PL-2-PRE' /deth#/ 'read SING-1-PRE'.
/pd?h/ 'read' PL-2-FUT, /pd?h#/ 'read SING-1-FUT

Nasalisation of the vowel // is used to distinguish between 1st person singular and 2nd person plural in the present tense and future tense.

/u/ /kua/ 'crow', /ku)a/ 'well'
/su/ 'you sleep', /su)/ 'let's sleep'
/ku-ku/ 'chirping of birds' /ku)-ku)/ 'whining of pups'
/jau/ 'Let him go' /jau)/ 'let us go'

Nasalisation of the vowel /u/ is used to distinguish between 3rd person singular and 1st person plural.

The higher -mid vowels /e/ and /o/ do not show phonemic contrats for oral and nasal conterpasrts although they can be nasalised in the context of a nasal consonant i.e., when they are preceded or followed by a nasal consonant.

4.1.1.4.2 Nasalisation of Vowels in the Vicinity of Nasal Stops.

Vowels in the environment of adjacent nasal consonants in any position in a word are subject to nasalisation to varying degrees. Vowels flanked on both sides by nasal consonants are most heavily nasalized.

The nasal consonants are /n/, /?/, /m/.

/n/: /ni/ [ni] 'no', /ghin/ [ghin] 'buy'.
/len-den/ [l?n-d?n] 'give-take'
/paen/ [paE)n] 'water', /kene/ [kenE)] 'where'
/gina/ [ginã] 'bowl', /a:n/ [ã:n] 'bring'
/khnd/ [kh#nd] 'piece', /nria/ [n#ria] 'coconut'
/nua/ [nu)u] 'new', /sun/ [su)n] 'listen'

/m/ : /mitha/ [mitha] 'sweet', /lkhmi/ [lkhmi] 'Lakshmi'
/mE)/[mE)] 'bleeting,' /kem/ [kE)m] 'reduce'
/csma/'[csmã] 'specs', /kam/ [kãm] 'work'
/mela/ [m)ela] 'dirt', /lm/ [l)m] 'long'
/mor/ [mÕr] 'my', /muhu/ [mu)hu] 'face'
/ghuma/[ghumã] 'fence'

/?/ /li?graj/[li?graj] 'Shiva', /be?g/ [bE)?g] 'frog'
/la?g/ [lã?g] 'liedown', /s?ge/[s)?ge] 'with'
/du?g/[du)?g] 'peep'

4.1.1.4.3 Scope of Nasalisation in Sequence of Vowels

In a sequence of vowels, if one of the vowels is nasalised, there is an induction of nasalisation from the nasal to the other vowel.

/paE)n/ [pâE)n] 'water'
/pekh/ [p)E)kh] 'feather'
/kuã/ [ku)ã] 'well'
/bhui/ [bhu)i] 'earth'
/h)es/ [h)E)s] 'laugh'
/mE)/ [m)E)] 'I'
/a:in/ [ã:in] 'law'

4.1.1.5 Vowel Raising

In Laria -ia suffix is added to nouns to derive adjectives. If the low back vowel 'a' and the mid back viwel are present in the last syllable of the stem, they are changed to higher back vowels '' and 'u' respectively when -ia suffix is added.

For example,

pakh + ia pkhia
'near' 'one who takes sides'
golmal + ia golmlia
'trouble' 'troublemaker'
t?han + ia t?hnia
'place' together
gor? + ia gur?ia
'leg' 'legged'
lobh + ia lubhia
'greed' 'greedy'

Two rules cab be formed for this change as

V V - C# ia

- round + round
+ low + low

V [high] - C# ia

+ round
- high

4.1 PHONETICS

4.1.1 Distribution of word-final consonants

4.2.1 Occurrence of word-final consonants

Almost all consonants in Laria can occur word finally with the exception of two
consonants

/y/ voiced dorso - palatal semi vowel (glide)

/h/ voiced glottal fricative

Laria does not have glottal and palatal glides and nasals in the word final position.

4.2.1.1 Occurrence of word-initial consonants

Most of the consonants occur in word initial position with the exception of /n?/, /r?/, /?/ and /y/

/n?/ voiced retroflex
/r?/ voiced retroflex tap
/?/ voiced velar nasal
/y/ voiced dorso-palatal semi-vowel.

4.2.2 Distribution of Consonant Clusters

Laria consonant clusters of a minimum of two consonants and a maximum of three consonants.

4.2.2.1 Geminate consonants

Geminate consonants are nothing but double consonants phonetically. In Indo-Aryan languages double consonants are the same as long consonants. A double consonant is one whose duration extends over two syllables1 i.e., there is always a syllable break between the two consonants.

_______________________________
1 D. Abercromble, (1967), Elements of General Phonetics, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, p. 82.

In Laria mostly borrowed words have geminates. Only in polished speeches the difference between single and geminate consonants are found. In common speech there is no contrast between the two. Some examples are given below.

Single Geminate
/sman/ 'equal' /smman/ 'honour'
/pka/ 'drop' /pkka/ 'plastered'
/kca/ 'washing' /kcca/ 'not ripe'
/mja/ 'pleasure' /mjja/ 'marrow'
/pta/ 'flat wooden piece' /ptta/ 'tittle deed'
/da/ 'long pole' /adda/ 'meeting place'

Since the contrast between the single and the geminate consonants is not always maintained in common speech, the clusters historically consisting of a non-aspirate and an aspirate are generally pronounced not as clusters but as single aspirated consonants. For instance

/cch/ > /acha/ 'all right'
/icha/ 'desire'
/k*chu/ 'tortoise'

4.2.2.2 Consonant Clusters

Laria can have three consonant or two consonant clusters. The tri-consonantal clusters occur only in initial and medial positions.

4.2.2.2.1 Occurance of word initial consonant clusters

The list given below shows the various possibilities of consonant clusters in word initial position.

Clusters starting with Example Gloss
/p/ /pr/ prca:r 'publicity'
/py/ pyaj 'onion'
/pl/ pla:s 'pliers'
/ph/ /phr/ phrem 'frame'
/phl/ phlat 'flat'
/b/ /br/ brt 'vow'
/bl/ blk 'block'
/by/ byst 'busy'
/bh/ /bhr/ bhrst 'corrupt'
/t/ /tr/ trahi 'mercy'
/ty/ tyag 'renounce'
/d/ /dr/ drabid 'Dravidian'
/dy/ dyuti 'brilliance'
/dh/ /dhr/ dhrub 'eternal'
/dhy/ dhyan 'meditation'
/t?/ /t?r/ t?rk 'truck'
/d?/ /d?r/ d?rama 'drama'
/j/ /jy/ jyoti 'lustre/flame'
/k/ /kr/ kranti 'revolution'
/kl/ klas 'class'
/kh/ /khr/ khristian 'Christian'
/khy/ khyati 'fame'
/g/ /gr/ grh 'planet'
/gy/ gyan 'knowledge'
/n/ /ny/ nyay 'justice'
/sp/ sptik 'a crystal'
/s/ /sr/ srabn 'Shravan'
/sl/ slok 'a verse'
/h/ /hr/ hrd 'lake'

4.2.2.2.2 Occurrence of word-medial consonant clusters

Consonant clusters are more commonly found in word-medial position. The table below gives the list of consonant clusters occurring in word-medial position.

Clusters beginning with Example Gloss
/p/ /pt/ gupti 'sharp knife'
/pk/ chpka 'stick'
/pt?/ rpt?a 'bridge'
/pr/ khpra/suprbhat 'tile' / 'good morning'
/pr?/ kpr?a 'cloth'
/pl/ biplb 'revolution'
/pc/ khpco 'uneven'
/ph/ /phr/ lephripda 'name of a place'
/b/ /bd/ sbd Word
/br/ subrt 'undertaking a vow'
/bj/ kbja 'capture'
/bh/ /bhr/ debhri 'left'
/t/ /ty/ htya 'murder'
/tr/ mutru 'one who pisses a lot
/th/ /thr/ kthri 'matress'
/thn/ kthni 'story'
/d/ /dr/ dridr 'poor'
/dm/ bdmas 'naughty'
/t?/ /t?k/ put?ki 'nose pin'
/t?r/ met?rik 'matriculation'
/t?h/ /t?hk/ bet?hki 'drawing room'
/thr/ gthri 'bundle'
/d?/ /d?k/ bd?ki 'elder daughter-in-law
/d?r/ madras 'Madras'
/k/ /kr/ u)kra 'to collect'
/kb/ ekbargi 'at once'
/kp/ ekpkhia 'once sided'
/ky/ baky 'sentence'
/k/ ekthnia 'single handed'
/kt/ daktr 'Doctor'
/kph/ ekphlia 'one sided'
/kc/ ekcalis 'forty-one'
/kj/ ekjidia 'stubborn'
/ks/ bksa 'box'
/kl/ ekla 'alone'
/kh/ /khm/ mkhml 'velvet'
/khr/ ukhra 'sweet puffed rice'
/khy/ khyr 'letter'
/g/ /gt/ bhugtan 'payment in full'
/gd?/ jhgd?a 'fight'
/gr/ agrh/hgri 'earnestness'
/d/ /dk/ bhdko 'odd shaped'
/dl/ bhdlo 'obese'
/g/ /gy/ bhagy 'fate'
/gh/ /ghr/ ughra 'open'
/c/ /cl/ ucu:l - cuclia 'restless'
/cr/ kcra 'dirt'
/ck/ lcka 'coquet'
/ch/ /chr/ chra 'shower'
/chl/ uchl 'overflowing'
/j/ /jp/ rjput 'a warrior cl an'
/jd/ mjdur 'labourer'
/jg/ jgr 'snake'
/jn/ bhujni 'right side'
/jr/ khujri/bjr 'boil'/'thunder'
jm/ hjmi 'digestion'
/jl/ kjia 'blood clot'
/jy/ rajy 'kingdom'
/jh/ /jhl/ sijhla (we will) get 'boiled'
/jhb/ sijhbo 'boiled'
/m/ /mp/ cmpa 'a flower'
/mb/ tmba 'copper'
/mt/ cimta 'chimta'
/mk/ cmka 'shine'
/ml/ gmla 'flower pot'
/mh/ brmha 'Brahma'
/mr/ kmar 'room'
/mr?/ cmr?a 'leather'
/n/ /nd/ cnda 'bald'
/ndh/ rndha 'cooking'
/nd?/ nd?a 'egg'
/nj/ snjog 'coincidence'
/nl/ chanla 'filtered'
/nk/ chnka 'make jingling sound'
/nt/ ghnka 'bell'
/ny/ pnya 'comb'
/s/ /sn/ basna 'smell'
/sm/ csma 'spectacles'
/sl/ msla 'spices'
/st/ khsra 'shift'
/sp/ ispat 'steel'
/sk/ taski 'small container'
/sn/ dsna 'matress'
/st?/ krust? 'Krishna'
/sb/ kesb 'a proper name'
/sy/ bsy 'certainly'
/n?/ /n?k/ jhun?kel 'shrubbery'
/?/ /?g/ ta?gr 'stone'
/r/ /rp/ khurpi 'digging instrument'
/rt/ krta 'doer'
/rb/ prbt 'mountain'
/rk/ kerkeca 'disorder'
/rd/ srdi 'cold'
/rg/ kurga 'name of a village'
/rc/ khrca 'expenditure'
/rch/ brcha 'spear'
/rj/ krja 'loan'
/rjh/ prjha 'fry'
/rm/ biswkrma 'Vishwakarma'
/rn/ krni 'mason's instrument'
/rl/ kirla 'shout'
/rh/ murhi 'puffed rice'
/rs/ ersa 'sweet meat'
/r?/ /r?h/ mur?ha 'bundle'
/r?n/ ur?na 'blanket'
/r?l/ kur?la 'dug'
/r?k/ mur?ki 'salty snacks'
/l/ /lb/ lbt 'definitely'
/ld/ hldia 'yellow'
/ld/ beldini 'name of a village'
/lp/ klpna 'imagination'
/lj/ klja 'liver'
/lg/ belgã 'name of a village'
/lgh/ pelgha 'push'
/lk/ palki 'palanguin'
/lt/ glti 'mistake'
/lt/ baltin 'bucket'
/lm/ golmlia 'miscreant'
/lph/ kulphi 'ice-cream'
/lg/ lga 'separate'
/ln/ belna 'rolling pin'
/lh/ klha 'who' /'anybody'
/h/ /hr/ mhrg 'costly'
/hl/ kahla 'to whom'

Word initial consonant clusters and Word final consonant clusters tables have been given in the next pages.

4.2.2.2.3 Occurrence of word -final consonant clustersb

Word-final consonant clusters are not formed in Laria except for /nd/ /ndh/ and /st/.

/nd/ kand 'cry'
/nd/ randh 'cook'
/st/ kst 'difficult'

In another cases, whenever there is a word ending with a consonant cluster, vowel insertion or 'svarbhakti' takes place as shown in some of the examples given below.

/gd/ ngd 'cash'
/bt/ jbt 'confiscated'
/km/ /rkm/ 'amount'
/khm/ /jkhm/ 'wound'
/jm/ /hjm/ 'digest'
/km/ /khtm/ 'finished'
/tn/ /rtn/ 'jewel'

4.2.2.2.4 Word Initial three consonant clusters

Very few three consonant clusters occur in the word initial position in Laria. Most of them are loan words. Nowadays they cannot be called true three consonant clusters as most of them have a vowel insertion. For example :

Clusters Example Gloss
/spr/ /sprdha/ [sprdha] 'compete'
/str/ /stri/ [stiri] 'wife'
/skr/ /skru/ [iskuru] 'screw'

4.2.2.2.5 Word-medial three consonant clusters

Word-medial consonant clusters occur more frequently than word-initial consonants in Laria. For example :

Clusters Example Gloss
/spr/ nisprbha 'lustreless'
/str/ str 'arms'
/skr/ snskrut 'Sanskrit'
/rjy/ surjy 'Sun'
/ndr/ kundru 'a vegetable'
/ntr/ santra 'orange'
/ndl/ hndla 'utensil'

4.2.2.2.6 Word-final three consonant clusters

Word-final three consonant clusters do not occur in Laria.

4.2.3 Distribution of Vowels

4.2.3.1 Word-final vowels

All vowels in Laria can occur in word final position in a wide range of words. Examples of vowels in word-final positions have been previously given in this chapter.

4.2.3.2 Word-initial vowels

All vowels can occur in word initial position in Laria. Examples of vowels in word-initial position have been given previously given in this chapter.

4.2.4 Vowel sequences

4.2.4.1 Diphthongs

The technical term for a vowel of continually changing quality is a diphthong. A diphthong may be described and identified in terms of its beginning and ending points, using the category for monopthongs with the assumption that the articulation, in their movement take the shortest path between these points. A diphthong is a sequence of two vowels provided it is remembered that they occupy only one syllable2. Laria has a rich variety of diphthongs which are listed as follows: /ia/, /ei/, /i/, /e/, /u/, /eo/, /ae/, /au/, /ai/, /ua/, /ui/.

Examples of diphthongs in Laria are as enumerated below:

/ia/ : [pia] (caus)', [diasili] 'matchstick'
/ei/ : [curie] 'bird', [krei] 'karahaii'
/i/ : [khi] 'puffed rice', [li] 'round shaped'
/e/ : [se] 'hundred', [mer] 'dia'
/u/ : [gur] 'milkman'
/eo/ : [seo] 'apple'
/ae/ : [hase] 'laugh caus', [pae] 'got'
/au/ : [bauri] 'mad woman', [khau] 'hog'
__________________________
2 Ibid., p. 60.

/ua/ : [khua] 'eat' (caus), [kua] 'crow'
/ui/ : [guis] 'went', [dhui] 'wash'
/i/ : [khir] 'sha e'
/ai/ : [khais] 'eat-PST'

4.2.4.2 Tripthongs:

Tripthong refers to a type of vowel where there are two noticeable changes in QUALITY during a syllable, as in a common pronunciation of English fire and tower3. In Laria, tripthongs are generally causative verbs. Examples are:

/uai/ /khuais/ 'eat (caus)' /suaist/ 'sleep (caus)'
/uai/ /luais/ 'bend (caus)'
/uei/ /khueis/ 'eat (caus)', /sueis/ sleep (caus)
/piai/ /piais/ 'drink (caus)'
/uae/ /khuae dis/ 'eat (caus)'
/iae/ /piae dis/ 'drink (caus)'
________________________
3 D. Crystal (1985), A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Basil Blackwell,Oxford, p. 317.

The vowel diagrams given below show the direction of movement in diphthongs and tripthongs.

The vowel diagram below shows that tripthongs are formed with an initial high vowel in Laria.

4.2.5 Syllabic Patterns

The canonical shapes of Laria syllables are listed below.

Co2 V Co2 Condition ~ CC V CC

Canonical Shapes of a Syllable Words Gloss
i. V a: 'come'
ii. VC a:n 'bring'
iii. CV k 'say'
iv. VCV la 'him'
v. CVC ka:m 'work'
vi. CCV priti 'affection'
vii. CCCV stri 'wife'
viii. VCCCV str 'arms'
ix. CVV khua 'eat (caus)'
x. CVVC mer 'die'
xi. CCVCC bhrsrt 'corrupt'
xi. CVVV khuae 'eat (caus)'
xii. CCVC tyag 'renounce'
xiv. CVVVC piais 'drink (caus)'

The syllabic patterns of CV and CVC shapes seem to be most frequent in Laria.

4.3 SUPRASEGMENTALS

4.3.1 DEGREES OF LENGTH

4.3.1.1 Syllables (vowels)

Vowels in Laria cannot be contrasted for length. Vowel lengthening is used for emphasis or stress.

4.3.1.2 Non-Syllables (Consonants)

Consonants contrast in length by the formation of geminates. Examples of consonants which contrast by the formation of geminates are given below.

4.3.1.2.1 Semivowels

The semivowel /y/ does not contrast in length in Laria.

4.3.1.2.1 Liquids

The lateral consonant /l/ and the apico - alveolar trill /r/ contrast in length.

/l/ /ka:la/ 'what' /ka:lla/ 'fate (acc)'
/kaela/ 'what' /kaella/ 'tomorrow'
/r/ /pra/ 'village' /prra/ 'white/fair'
/khra/ 'sunlight' /khrra/ 'a caste'
/hra/ 'defeat' /hrra/ 'fruit'

4.3.1.2.2 Nasals

Nasals also contrast in length

/m/ /sman/ 'equal' /smman/ 'respect'
/n/ /dhn/ 'dear' /dhnny/ 'praiseworthy'

4.3.1.2.3 Fricatives

Fricatives don't seem to contrast for length in Laria.

4.3.1.2.4 Stops and Africates

Stops and affricates also contrast in length. Some of the examples are:

/t/ /ta/ 'flour' /atta/ 'eight'
/d/ /da/ 'pole' /adda/ 'rendezvous'
/c/ /kca/ 'washed' /kcca/ 'green/unripe'
/j/ /mja/ 'pleasure' /mjja/ 'marrow'

4.3.2 STRESS

Stress has no role in the language except when used for emphasis.

4.3.2 PITCH

Pitch is not distinctive in the language. There are no forms distinguished from others purely by pitch.

4.3.3 INTONATION

Intonation in the language varies according to the type of sentence being uttered. It also varies according to the emotional content of the speech.

4.3.4.1 Major Intonation Patterns

The pitch movement in the last syllable is the cause of the formation of the major types of intonation patterns. The four main types of movement are (i) fall to a law pitch ii)

rise to a relatively high pitch (iii) rise-fall ending on a medium to-low pitch

(iv) mid-level Examples of these patterns in relation to relation different sentence types are given below :

4.3.4.1.1 Falling Intonation

Statements

Statements are characterized by a falling intonation.

raju kael asis
Raju yesterday come-PST
'Raju came yesterday'.

kuã thi pani ni n
well in water NEG FP
'There is no water in the well.'

WH- Questions

WH- questions have a falling intonation.

te kaha jaths
you wher go-CONT
'Where are you going?'

te kaha khabe
you what eat-FUT
'What will you eat?'

4.3.4.1.2 Rising to a relatively high pitch

Yes-No Questions

In Yes-No question the interrogative marker 'ka' is at the end of the sentence and thus the sentence has a rising intonation.

pne bja:r ja:the ka
he market go CONT QUES
'Is he going to the market?'

te khae n ka
he eat FP QUES
'Did you eat?'

Declarative Sentences

A declarative sentence can be used to ask a yes-no questions. There is a rise in pitch at the end of the sentence in such cases.

rjr a:sis
'Rajat came
'Rajat came?'

sures cakri pa:is
Suresh job get-PST
'Suresh got a job?'

4.3.4.1.3 Rise-fall ending on a medium-to-low pitch

Alternative yes-no question have a rise at the end of the first stated alternative and a fall at the end of the second.

mit a:ej asihi ki kael
Amit today come-FUT or tomorrow
'Will Amit come today or tomorrow?'

ine brsa he rihis ki ni hi
here rain happen did or NEG happen
'Did it rain here or not?'

4.3.4.1.4 Mid-Level

Imperatives have a mid-level intonation in Laria. The sentences begin with a slightly high pitch and end in the same level.

bhi la a:n
book ACC bring
'Bring the book'

bhat ba:d
rice serve
'Serve the rice'

4.3.4.2 Emphatic Intonation

One of the means of expressing constituent emphasis is the use of stronger than average stress. In a sentence in which an element is emphasized, stress is combined with a particularly high intonation peak on the element in question.

ra:m pacla a:m te khais
Ram ripe mango CL eat-PST
'Ram ate a ripe mango'.

ra:m bha:t khais
Ram rice eat-PST
'Ram ate rice'

4.3.4.3 Contrastive Stress

The effect of contrastive stress on the intonation peak is similar to that of emphatic stress. There is a higher than average peak on the element contrasted with some other which is not necessarily expressed.


pne mor bai e
she my elder is
'She is my elder sister'

pne mor bai e
She my elder sister is
'She is my elder sister.'