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Tense :

In Kannada-Hindi writings, it is observed that the usage of tense is not consistent. In conditional constructions in Kannada, the very is formed by the addition of a conditional morpheme to the past verb stem. Apart from this, there are only two tenses in Kannada, viz., past and non-past. The non-past forms are used both in present and future. But in Hindi, there are three distinctive sub-categories, viz., past, present and future. This difference in the tense 'systems of Kannada and Hindi is the possible source for constructions like the following in Kannada-Hindi :

1. <ºÉ iÉi´É EòÉä ¦ÉÚ±É VÉÉBÄMÉä (future) iÉÉä ¨ÉÉxÉ´É +Éè®ú =nÖùªÉÉäMÉÉå Eäò |ɇiÉ MÉÉè®ú´É EòÒ ¦ÉÉ´ÉxÉÉ Eò¨É ½þÉäiÉÒ VÉÉiÉÒ ½èþ* (Present).

----º´ÉiÉÆjÉ ºÉ¨ÉÉVÉ EòÒ ‡"ÉIÉÉ {Érù‡iÉ, {ÉÞ. 49

'if we forget this characteristic, the feeling of respect towards humanity and professions will gradually disappear'.

Kannada :

xÉÉ´ÉÖ <Ç MÉÖhÉ´ÉzÉÖÖ ¨É®äúiÉ®äú (Past), VÉxÉiÉä ¨ÉkÉÖ ½ÖþqäùMÉ±É Eòbä÷‡Mɯû´É MÉÉè®ú´ÉªÉÖCiÉ +‡¦É|ÉɪɴÉÖ Gò¨ÉähÉ nÖù®ú´ÉÉMÉÖkÉnäù (Non-past)

1. ¤ÉɱÉEò EòÉä `öÒEò ®úɺiÉä {É®ú ±ÉÉxÉä ¨Éä ½þ¨É ºÉ¨ÉlÉÇ ½þÉåMÉä (Future) iÉÉä ´ªÉÎCiÉ MÉÉè®ú´É EòÉä ¨ÉÉxªÉiÉÉ näùxÉä EòÉ EòiÉÇ´ªÉ {ÉÚhÉÇ ½þÉä MɪÉÉ (Past)

'If we become successful in bringing the child up in the proper way, the question of giving recognition to the individuality is accomplished.

Kannada :

¨ÉMÉÖ´ÉzÉÖ +Éä²³äýªÉ nùɇ®úMÉä iɯû´Éα±É xÉÉ´ÉÖ (MÉqù®äú) |ÉMɇiÉ"ÉұɮúÉnù®äú (Past) BEòiÉäMÉä EòÉäbÖ÷´É ¨ÉzÉhÉäªÉ |ɦÉäªÉÖ EòÉäxÉäMÉÉä³ÖýkÉnäù (Non-past)

<ºÉ ±ÉIªÉ iÉEò {ɽÄþÖSÉxÉä Eäò‡±ÉB +‡¦É ºÉ¨ÉªÉ ±ÉMÉiÉÉ ½èþ (Present) --- º´ÉiÉÆjÉ ºÉ¨ÉÉVÉ EòÒ ‡"ÉIÉÉ {Érù‡iÉ, {ÉÞ.10.

'It will take some more time to achieve this goal'.

Kannada :

<Ç MÉÖ‡®úªÉzÉÖ ¨ÉÖ^õ¤ÉäEòÉnù®äú(Past)

The correct forms of the above examples would be

1. <ºÉ iÉi´É EòÉää ¦ÉÚ±É VÉÉBÄMÉä iÉÉä ¨ÉÉxÉ´É +Éè®ú =tÉäMÉå Eäò |ɇiÉ MÉÉè®ú´É EòÒ ¦ÉÉ´ÉxÉÉ Eò¨É ½þÉäiÉÒ VÉÉBMÉÒ *

2. ¤ÉɱÉEò EòÉä `öÒEò ®úɺiÉä {É®ú ±ÉÉxÉä ¨Éå ½þ¨É ºÉ¨ÉlÉÇ ½þÉåMÉä iÉÉä ´ªÉÎCiÉ MÉÉè®ú´É EòÉä ¨ÉÉxªÉiÉÉ näùxÉä EòÉ EòiÉÇ´ªÉ {ÉÚhÉÇ ½þÉä VÉÉBMÉÉ *

3. <ºÉ ±ÉIªÉ iÉEò {ɽÖÄþSÉxÉä ¨Éå +¦ÉÒ ºÉ¨ÉªÉ ±ÉMÉäMÉÉ *

Number:

There are two peculiar characteristics of 'number' use in Kannada-Hindi:

(i) improper usage of number and
(ii) non-observance of number concord.

(i)Improper usage of number :

In some cases, the usage of singular number in the place of plural and vice-versa is found in KH which results in the expressions unacceptable to SH speakers. For example,

1. <iÉxÉÉ +‡vÉEò ‡ºÉCEòÉ SÉɱÉÚ Eò®úxÉÉ {Éc÷É *
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 225

the correct form should be

<iÉxÉä +‡vÉEò ‡ºÉCEäò SÉɱÉÚ Eò®úxÉä {Écä÷ *

(ii) Number concord :

A number of examples are found in the Hindi writings of KH bilinguals in which the feature of number concord is absent. In Kannada, the verb has to agree in number with the subject noun in the case of nouns belonging to masculine and feminine genders. But in the case of neuter nouns, number agreement may or may not be there. For example, constructions like the following are possible in Kannada :

1. h"su b"ntu ½þºÉÖ ¤ÉxiÉÖ
b"nd"wu ¤Éxnù´ÉÖ

2. h"sug"l?u b"ntu ½þºÉÖMɳÖý ¤ÉxiÉÖ
b"nd"wu ¤Éxnù´ÉÖ

But in Hindi, verb has to agree in number with (a) the subject noun in all constructions (except in 'ne' constructions) and (b) the object noun in all constructions in which 'ne' is used. In cases not covered by (a) or (b) above, it is in singular.
The influence of Kannada number system may be observed in the following examples. Some examples are also found in KH in which number concord is not observed even in the case of constructions involving masculine/feminine nouns. This is due to the difference in the gender systems of Kannada and Hindi which is discussed in the following section. For example,

1. <ºÉ ¦ÉÞÆMÉEòÒ]õ xªÉÉªÉ EòÒ iÉ®ú½þ ºÉSSÉÉ MÉÖ°ü (Sing.) ¦ÉÒ +{ÉxÉä ºÉÆ{ÉEÇò ¨Éå +ÉxÉä´ÉɱÉä ‡"ɹªÉ EòÉä +{ÉxÉÉ VÉèºÉÉ (Sing.) ¤ÉxÉÉ näùiÉä ½èþ (Plural)
--- º´ÉiÉÆjÉ ºÉ¨ÉÉVÉ EòÒ ‡"ÉIÉÉ {Érù‡iÉ, {ÉÞ. 5
The correct form should be

<ºÉ ¦ÉÞÆMÉEòÒ]õ xªÉÉªÉ EòÒ iÉ®ú½þ ºÉSSÉÉ MÉÖ°ü ¦ÉÒ +{ÉxÉä ºÉÆ{ÉEÇò ¨Éå +ÉxÉä´ÉɱÉä ‡"ɹªÉ EòÉä +{ÉxÉÉ VÉèºÉÉ ¤ÉxÉÉ näùiÉÉ ½äþ

2. ½þ¨ÉÉ®úÉ (Plural) {ÉÖ®úJÉÉ (Sing.) ‡VÉxÉ SÉÉè¹É¹]õÒ ‡´ÉtÉ+Éå EòÉ xÉÉ¨É ±ÉäiÉä ½éþ =xɨÉå ºÉɇ½þiªÉ, Eò±ÉÉ, +Éè®ú =tÉäMÉ ¦ÉÒ ½éþ*
--- º´ÉiÉÆjÉ ºÉ¨ÉÉVÉ EòÒ ‡"ÉIÉÉ {Érù‡iÉ, {ÉÞ. 61
The correct form should be

½þ¨ÉÉ®äú {ÉÖ®úJÉä ‡VÉxÉ SÉÉƺÉ`ö ‡´ÉtÉä+Éå EòÉ xÉÉ¨É ±ÉäiÉä ½éþ, =xɨÉå ºÉɇ½þiªÉ, Eò±ÉÉ +Éè®ú =tÉäMÉ ¦ÉÒ ½éþ*

3. =ºÉEòÒ (Sing.) BºÉÒ ®úIÉÉ EòÒ ‡Eò =xÉEäò (Plural) ¨ÉÚ±É °ü{É ºÉÖ®ú‡IÉiÉ ®úJÉ ºÉEòÉ (Sing.)
--- EòzÉb÷ Eäò ¦ÉCiÉ Eò‡´É {ÉÖ®úxnù®únùɺÉ, {ÉÞ. 79

The Correct form should be

=ºÉEòÒ BºÉÒ ®úIÉÉ EòÒ ‡Eò =ºÉEòÉ ¨ÉÚ±É °ü{É ®ú½þ ºÉEòÉ*

4. +Éè®ú EòÉä<Ç (Sing.) xɽþÓ VÉÉxÉiÉä lÉä (Plural)
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 423

correct form:

+Éè®ú EòÉä<Ç xɽþÓ VÉÉxÉiÉÉ lÉÉ*

5. ¤É½ÖþiÉ EÖòUô Eò½þxÉä-ºÉÖxÉxÉä {É®ú ¦ÉÒ EòÉä<Ç ¦ÉÒ (Sing.) |ɦÉÖ EòÉ ‡xÉ"SÉªÉ ¤Énù±É xɽþÓ ºÉEäò (Plural)
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 206

correct form:

¤É½ÖþiÉ EÖòUô Eò½þxÉä ...........................¤Énù±É xɽþÓ ºÉEòÉ*

6. =xÉEäò ºÉ½þɪÉEò SÉÉä±É ºÉäxÉÉ{ɇiÉ +ÉnùÒªÉ¨É ¤Éc÷É ½þÒ (Sing.) GÚò®ú, Eò{É]õÒ iÉlÉÉ "ÉÒ±É ®ú‡½þiÉ ½éþ (Plural)
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 154
correct form:

=xÉEòÉ ............... ½èþ
7. VÉÉä EòÉä<Ç (Sing.) <ºÉ ¤ÉSSÉä ºÉä ¤ÉÉiÉå Eò®úiÉä ½éþ (Plural)
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 154
Its correct form is

VÉÉä EòÉä<Ç <ºÉ ¤ÉSSÉä ºÉä ¤ÉÉiÉå Eò®úiÉÉ ½èþ

Gender:

There are three genders in Kannada, viz., masculine, feminine and neuter, whereas Hindi has only two, masculine and feminine. Moreover, Kannada has a natural gender while Hindi has a grammatical gender. In Hindi, a natural gender is found with the nouns referring to male and corresponding female beings. Those items belonging to neuter gender in Kannada fall either under masculine or feminine in KH. This results in KH bilinguals' assignment of a wrong gender to all items that show a natural gender in Kannada. For example, consider the following:

Masculine Meaning Feminine Meaning
iÉɨÉÒ±É 'To execute' ‡MɱÉÉºÉ 'glass/tumbler'
‡®ú{ÉÉä]Çõ 'report' {ɽþÒªÉÉ 'wheel'
º´ÉiÉÆjÉiÉÉ 'independence ‡b÷{ÉÉ]Çõ¨Éå]õ 'department'

This inappropriate use is random and no pattern is discoverable.

Another feature concerned with gender in KH is the absence of gender concord. For example,
1. iÉÖ¨É ¨Éä®äú VÉèºÉä ºjÉÒ ºÉÆiÉÉxÉ iÉÉä VÉx¨É xɽþÓ näùxÉÉ
--- EòzÉb÷ ±ÉÉäEò ºÉɇ½þiªÉ ¨Éå xÉÉ®úÒ EòÉ ºlÉÉxÉ, ºÉ¨Éx´ÉªÉ {ÉÞ. 109

correct form:

iÉÖ¨É ¨Éä®úÒ VÉèºÉÒ ºjÉÒ ºÉÆiÉÉxÉ iÉÉä VÉx¨É xɽþÓ näùxÉÉ

2. +iÉ& ¨ÉÉÄ +Éè®ú EÖòUô +ÉYÉÉ xÉ näùEò®ú IɨÉÉ Eò®úÉä +Éè®ú +ªÉÉävªÉÉ ´ÉÉ{ÉºÉ SɱÉä VÉÉ+Éä*
--- {ÉÆ{É ®úɨÉɪÉhÉ EòÒ EòlÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 24

correct form:

+iÉ& ¨ÉÉÄ +Éè®ú EÖòUô +ÉYÉÉ xÉ näùEò®ú IɨÉÉ Eò®úÉä +Éè®ú +ªÉÉävªÉÉ ´ÉÉ{ÉºÉ SɱÉä VÉÉ+Éä*

Person:

Some sentences in which the verb forms do not agree with 'person' (in the case of 2nd person) are also found in the Hindi works of KH bilinguals. Such agreement is very essential in SH and therefore such sentences in which the agreement between the verb and the 'person' is not maintained, are unacceptable to SH speakers.

1. ¤ÉÉä±É, +®äú iÉÖ¨É CªÉÉå ‡ºÉ®ú xÉÒSÉÉ ‡EòB ¤Éè`äö ½þÉä
--- EÞò¹hɨÉÚÌiÉ, {ÉÞ. 168

2. iÉÖ¨É iÉÉä Eò¦ÉÒ vÉÉäJÉÉ xɽþÓ näùiÉÉ
--- nÖùMÉÉÇnùɺÉ, {ÉÞ. 89

3. ªÉ½þ näùJÉÉä, ªÉ½þ Eònù±ÉÒ +ÉnùÒ iÉä®úÒ ºÉäxÉÉ ½èþ*
--- EÞò¹hɨÉÚÌiÉ, {ÉÞ. 485

The correct forms of the above sentences should be

1. ¤ÉÉä±ÉÉä, +®äú iÉÖ¨É CªÉÉå ‡ºÉ®ú xÉÒSÉÉ ‡EòB ¤Éè`ö ½þÉä or
¤ÉÉä±É, +®äú iÉÚ CªÉÉå ‡ºÉ®ú xÉÒSÉ ‡EòB ¤Éè`öÉ ½èþ*

2. iÉÖ¨É iÉÉä Eò¦ÉÒ vÉÉäJÉÉ xɽþÓ näùiÉä or
iÉÖ iÉÉä Eò¦ÉÒ vÉÉäJÉÉ xɽþÓ näùiÉÉ

3. ªÉ½þ näùJÉÉä, ªÉ½þ Eònù±ÉÒ +ÉnùÒ iÉÖ¨½þÉ®úÒ ºÉäxÉÉ ½äþ* or
ªÉ½þ näùJÉ, ªÉ½þ Eònù±ÉÒ +ÉnùÒ iÉä®úÒ ºÉäxÉÉ ½èþ*

Honorific Vs. Casual Expressions:

Non-proficient and semi-proficient KH bilinguals mostly use causal verb forms with honorific nouns. The reason for this seems to be that in Dravidian Languages, the verb form remains the same both in the case of honorific and casual plural nouns and this feature is carried over to Hindi by KH bilinguals while writing in Hindi. For example,

Casual Honorific
Hindi iÉÖ¨É VÉÉ+Éä +É{É VÉÉ<B
Kannada xÉÒ´ÉÖ ½þÉä‡MÉ iÉÉ´ÉÖ ½þÉä‡MÉ
Telugu ¨ÉÒ°ü ´Éä±±ÉÎhb÷ iɨɰü ´Éä±±ÉÎhb÷
Tamil xÉÓMɳý {ÉÉåMɳý iÉÉÆMɳý {ÉÉåMɳý
Malayalam ‡xÉzÉÉ±É {ÉÉäEòhÉ¨É iÉÉÆEò±É {ÉÉäEòhɨÉ

Postpositions:

It is very common to find a number of non-proficient and semi-proficient KH bilinguals making an 'incorrect usage' of 'ne' in conditionals. For example,

iÉÖ¨ÉxÉä VÉÉxÉÉ ½èþ 'you have to go'
=ºÉxÉä JÉÉxÉÉ ½èþ 'he has to eat' etc.

Such (a) incorrect usage of 'ne' and (b) non-usage of 'ne' where it is necessary is also found in the Hindi writings of proficient KH bilinguals. For example,

(a) 1. ¸ÉÒ Eäò.´ÉÒ. ¸ÉÒ‡xÉ´ÉɺɨÉÚÌiÉ, ‡¤É.B. B±É. B±É. ¤ÉÒ. xÉä <ºÉEòÉ ‡½þxnùÒ ¨Éå +xÉÖ´ÉÉnù Eò®úEäò {ÉÖ®úÉiÉi´É ‡´É¦ÉÉMÉ iÉlÉÉ ¨Éä®úÒ EÞòiÉYÉiÉÉ Eäò {ÉÉjÉ ½ÖþB ½éþ*
--- ¸ÉÒ®ÆúMÉ{É^õhÉ, '¦ÉÚ‡¨ÉEòÉ'
the use of 'ne' in the above example is erroneous.

(b) 1. ´É½þ ´Éè®úÉMªÉ {É®ú´É"É ½þÉä MɪÉÉ B´É¨É ‡VÉxÉ nùÒIÉÉ OɽþhÉ Eò®ú ±ÉÒ*
--- {ÉÆ{É ®úɨÉɪÉhÉ EòÒ EòlÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 57

The correct form of the above should be

1. ´É½þ ´Éè®úÉMªÉ {É®ú´É"É ½þÉä MɪÉÉ B´É¨É =ºÉxÉä ‡VÉxÉ nùÒIÉÉ OɽþhÉ Eò®ú ±ÉÒ*

2. EÖÄò´É®ú ¤ÉºÉ´É EòÒ |ɇiɨÉÉ Eäò ‡xÉEò]õ +ɪÉÉ, SÉÉ®úÉå +Éä®ú näùJÉÉ, ‡¡ò®ú ºÉä nùÒnùÒ, nùÒnùÒ, nùÒnùÒ Eò½þ Eò®ú iÉÒxÉ ¤ÉÉ®ú <ºÉ |ÉEòÉ®ú {ÉÖEòÉ®úÉ*
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 318

The correct form of the above example should be

EÖÄò´É®ú ¤ÉºÉ´É EòÒ |ɇiɨÉÉ Eäò ‡xÉEò]õ +ɪÉÉ, +Éè®ú =ºÉxÉä SÉÉ®úÉå +Éä®ú näùJÉÉ, ‡¡ò®ú nùÒnùÒ, nùÒnùÒ, nùÒnùÒ Eò½þ Eò®ú iÉÒxÉ ¤ÉÉ®ú <ºÉ |ÉEòÉ®ú {ÉÖEòÉ®úÉ*

It is also found that the improper usage of post-positions other than 'ne' is made by KH bilinguals in their writings in Hindi.

For example,
1. =ºÉxÉä ºÉÉ±É EòÒ nÖù½þÉ<Ç näùEò®ú {ÉÖEòÉ®úÉ
--- ¤Éä±ÉÚ®ú EòÒ nùÒ‡{ÉEòÉ, {ÉÞ. 11

The postposition in the above example should be 'ko' and not 'ki'.

2. ±ÉI¨ÉÒ EòÉä +{ÉxÉä ‡{ÉiÉÉ EòÉä JÉÉä näùxÉÉ
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 250

In this example, the postposition should be 'ka' instead of 'ko' occurring after Lakshmi:

3. <Ç…É®ú EòÉ VÉx¨É-¨É®úhÉ EòÉ ºÉƤÉÆvÉ xɽþÓ ½èþ*

In this example, the second postposition should be 'se' instead of 'ka'.

Another feature of KH postpositions is that necessary changes in the adjectives, etc., in accordance with the postpositions are not made. This error arises owing to the fact that adjectives in Kannada are indeclinable.

For example,

1. ½þ¨É =ºÉ M´ÉɱÉÉ ºÉä nÖùvÉ ±ÉäiÉä ½éþ
--- EòzÉb÷ ºÉ®ú±É ‡"ÉIÉEò, {ÉÞ. 38

2. +ɇ½þºiÉÉ ºÉä {ÉÖjÉÒ Eäò ½þÉlÉ EòÉä +{ÉxÉä ½þÉlÉ ¨Éå ±ÉäEò®ú =x½þÉåxÉä |ɦÉÖ EòÒ +Éä®ú où¹]õÒ ¡äò®úÒ
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ {ÉÞ. 411

The correct forms of the above sentences are :

1. ½þ¨É =ºÉ M´ÉɱÉä ºÉä nÚùvÉ ±ÉäiÉä ½éþ*

2. +ɇ½þºiÉä ºÉä {ÉÖjÉÒ Eäò ½þÉlÉ EòÉä +{ÉxÉä ½þÉlÉ ¨Éå ±ÉäEò®ú =x½þÉåxÉä |ɦÉÖ EòÒ +Éä®ú oùι]õ ¡äò®úÒ

It is worth mentioning here that in some places where a post-position is necessary, it is not used by KH bilinguals.

For example,

1. |ɦÉÖ xÉä iÉÖ¨É EòÉä ºÉäxÉÉ{ɇiÉ ¤ÉxÉÉxÉä ‡xÉ"SÉªÉ ‡EòªÉÉ ½èþ*
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 152

2. ‡ºÉ®ú ZÉÖEòÉB =xÉ ºÉÉ®úÒ ¤ÉÉiÉå ‡xÉ´ÉänùxÉ EòÒ
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 325

3. ¨Éé ¤ÉÉiÉå Eò®úxÉä ¨Éå VÉ®úÉ ¦ÉÒ EÖò"ɱÉiÉÉ xɽþÓ +ÉiÉÒ
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 212

The correct forms of the above are

1. |ɦÉÖ xÉä iÉÖ¨É EòÉä ºÉäxÉÉ{ɇiÉ ¤ÉxÉÉxÉä EòÉ ‡xÉ"ªÉªÉ ‡EòªÉÉ ½èþ*

2. ‡ºÉ®ú ZÉÖEòÉB =xÉ ºÉÉ®úÒ ¤ÉÉiÉÉå EòÉ ‡xÉ´ÉänùxÉ ‡EòªÉÉ

3. ¨ÉÖZÉ EòÉä / ¨ÉÖZÉä ¤ÉÉiÉå Eò®úxÉä ¨Éå VÉ®úÉ ¦ÉÒ EÖò"ɱÉiÉÉ xɽþÓ +ÉiÉÒ*

In certain instances in KH, appropriate changes in the sentences are not made in accordance with the postpositions used in them.

For example,

1. ªÉÚxÉɇxɪÉÉå EòÉ =i{ɇkÉ´ÉÉnù, +Éè®ú ´Éè‡nùEò Eò¨ÉÇ´ÉÉnù Eäò JÉhb÷xÉ EòÉ +ÉvÉÉ®ú ‡´ÉEòɺɴÉÉnù ½þÒ ½èþ*

The first postpositions in the above sentence should be Eäò and not EòÉ .

Word order:

It may be mentioned here that change in the word-order is also a prominent feature of KH will be clear form the following examples:

1. ={É®úÉxiÉ <ºÉEäò <ÆnÖù¨ÉiÉÒ xÉä ‡´É‡SÉjÉ ´ÉºjÉɇiÉ +ɦÉÚ¹ÉhÉÉå ºÉä ºÉÎVVÉiÉ Eò®ú.......
--- {ÉÆ{É ®úɨÉɪÉhÉ EòÒ EòlÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 12

2. +¤É ¨ÉÖJªÉ nùÉäxÉÉå ´ÉvÉÖBÄ |ɦÉÖ Eäò nùÉäxÉÉå ¤ÉMÉ±É ¨Éå +ÉEò®ú ¤Éè`öÓ
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ {ÉÞ. 12

3. =ºÉÒ ¨Éä®äú ¦ÉÉ´ÉÉ´Éä"É EòÉ |ɇiɯû{É ªÉ½þ ¨Éä®úÒ EÞò‡iÉ
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, '|ɺiÉÉ´ÉxÉÉ', {ÉÞ. 17

4. ±Éä‡EòxÉ ªÉ½þ +‡vÉEòÉ®ú <xÉEòÉä ‡nùªÉÉ lÉÉ ‡EòºÉxÉä
--- ´É½þÒ, {ÉÞ. 100

The correct forms of the above examples are

1. <ºÉEäò ={É®úÉxiÉ <xnÖù¨É‡iÉ xÉä ...............

2. +´É nùÉäxÉÉå ¨ÉÖJªÉ ´ÉvÉÖBÄ |ɦÉÖ Eäò ...............

3. ¨Éä®äú =ºÉÒ ¦ÉÉ´ÉÉ´Éä"É EòÒ |ɇiɯû{É ªÉ½þ ¨Éä®úÒ EÞò‡iÉ ...............

4. ±Éä‡EòxÉ ªÉ½þ +‡vÉEòÉ®ú <xÉEòÉä ‡EòºÉxÉä ‡nùªÉÉ lÉÉ*

Anaphoric usages:

In the constructions having antecedents, the proper anaphoric usage is not followed. This is due to the difference in such constructions in Kannada and Hindi, for example,

Hindi Phrase KH Phrase Meaning
>ð{É®ú ‡±ÉJÉÉ Vɯû®úÒ {ÉjÉ >ð{É®ú VÉ°ü®úÒ {ÉjÉ 'the above letter'

BEò Eäò ¤ÉÉnù BEò =c÷iÉä ½ÖþB ¡Úò±É ¡Úò±É {É®ú ºÉä ¡Úò±É =c÷iÉä ½ÖþB 'flowers flying one after the other'

Lexical Transfer:

Lexical transfer may be divided into two categories:

(i) items having partial distribution (shift):

Item Meaning in L1 Meaning in L2
¤Éä]õÉ male child male or female child
PÉh]äõ hours, o'clock hours

(ii) items having totally different distribution (displacement)

Item Meaning in SH Meaning in KH
½þ±É solution of a problem cross

Use of Urdu words:

By and large, the general public of non-Hindi region uses a fairly large number of Urdu words popularized through the Hindi movies. This phenomenon is found in the KH bilinguals' Hindi writings also. For example, Vɯû®ú, EòÉä‡"É"É, JÉÖnù, JÉÖ"ÉÒ, ‡nù¨ÉÉMÉ, etc. However, the trend of Puritanism found in certain universities of Hindi of Hindi region such as the Banaras Hindu University, the Allahabad University, the Lucknow University, etc., is retained by proficient bilinguals who underwent training in such areas by using words having Sanskrit origin and by avoiding popular Urdu words.

Compound Forms:

In spite of the fact that certain items like ji:v vime 'life insurance' are compound forms in Kannada, KH bilinguals have used postpositions which are unacceptable to SH speakers.

For example,

1. ºÉ¨ÉªÉ {É®ú VÉÒ´ÉxÉ EòÒ ´ÉÒ¨ÉÉ Eò®úÉxÉä ºÉ ¤ÉÖføÉ{Éä ¨Éå ½þ¨É +ÉÌlÉEò º´ÉÉiÉÆjªÉ EòÉä ¤ÉxÉÉB ®úJÉ ºÉEåòMÉä
--- ´ªÉɴɽþɇ®úEò ‡½þxnùÒ {ÉÞ. 143

In Hindi also, 'ji:w"n bi:ma:' is a compound and it does not require any postposition.

Unusual expressions:

Some peculiar usages are found in the Hindi writings of KH bilinguals which are unusual to the native speakers of Hindi. The reason is, that such expressions exist in Kannada.

For example,

1. ½þɇlɪÉÉå Eäò ½þÉlÉÉå ¨Éå ¤Écä÷-¤Écä÷ EÖòhbä÷ ‡nù±É´ÉÉEò®ú nù®ú´ÉÉVÉÉ iÉÉäc÷xÉä EòÉ |ɪÉixÉ ‡EòªÉÉ MɪÉÉ
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 431

2. ºÉÉ®úÒ ºÉ¦ÉÉ ¨Éå =iºÉɽþ EòÒ vÉÉä¹ÉhÉÉ ½Öþ<Ç
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 110

3. ¨ÉèºÉÚ®ú ºÉä ½þ®ú +ɪÉä vÉh`äö ¨Éå BEò ¤ÉÉ®ú ¸ÉÒ®ÆúMÉ{É^õhÉ EòÉä ¤ÉºÉ JÉÖ±ÉiÉÒ ½äþ
--- ¸ÉÒ®ÆúMÉ{É^õhÉ

4. ¡Úò±ÉÉå (EäòºÉ®úiÉÉVÉ) ºÉ½þ"ÉEò¨É±É ‡VɱÉä ½ÖþB lÉä
--- "ÉÉÆiɱÉÉ {ÉÞ. 110

In the above examples, ½þɇlɪÉÉå Eäò ½þÉlÉÉå ¨Éå, =iºÉɽþ EòÒ vÉÉä¹ÉhÉÉ, ¤ÉºÉ JÉÖ±ÉiÉÒ ½èþ, ¡Úò±ÉÉå ºÉ½þ"ÉEò¨É±É etc., sound unusual to SH speakers.

Translation:

Catford defines translation as 'the replacement of textual material in one language (source language =SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language = TL) (Catford 1965). Thus in the process of translation, one attempts to establish an equivalent or roughly equivalent formation in TL for the formation in SL. KH bilinguals are not an exception to Catford's definition but their attempt results in the unacceptable expressions to SH speakers. For example,

1. näù´ÉÒ ¨É½þÉ…ÉäiÉÉ +É{ÉEòÉ ºÉ¨ÉªÉ {ÉÚUô ®ú½þÒ ½èþ
--- ºÉÉvÉxÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 53

2. ‡´ÉVɪÉxÉMÉ®ú ºÉɃÉÉVªÉ EòÉ {ÉiÉxÉ iÉɇ±ÉEòÉä]õ Eäò ªÉÖrÂù ¨Éå 1565 ¨Éå ½Öþ+É iÉÉä CªÉÉ ½Öþ+É EòxÉÉÇ]õEò EòÉ ºÉ®úÉäVÉ ®ú‡´É ºÉnùÉ Eäò ‡±ÉB +ºiÉ ½þÉä MɪÉÉ*
--- EÞò¹hɨÉÚÌiÉ, {ÉÞ. 21

3. {ÉÉhbÖ÷ xÉä BEò ‡nùxÉ ¨ÉÉä½þ´É"É ¨ÉÉpùÒ Eäò ºÉÆMÉ ¨Éå ®ú½þÉ ‡EòªÉÉ
--- +¨É®úxÉÉlÉÉ, {ÉÞ. 60

The correct forms of the above examples are:

1. näù´ÉÒ ¨É½þÉ…ÉäiÉÉ +É{ÉEäò ®úÉVªÉEòÉ±É EòÉ ºÉ¨ÉªÉ {ÉÚUô ®ú½þÒ ½èþ

2. ‡´ÉVɪÉxÉMÉ®ú ºÉɃÉÉVªÉ EòÉ {ÉiÉxÉ iÉɇ±ÉEòÉä]õ Eäò ªÉÖrÂù ¨Éå 1565 ¨Éå ½Öþ+É iÉÉä EòxÉÉÇ]õEò EòÉ ºÉ®úÉäVÉ ®ú‡´É ºÉnùÉ Eäò ‡±ÉB +ºiÉ ½þÉä MɪÉÉ*

3. {ÉÉhbÖ÷ BEò ‡nùxÉ ¨ÉÉä½þ´É"É ¨ÉÉpùÒ Eäò ºÉÆMÉ ¨Éå ®ú½þÉ

In certain cases, the verbs used in such translated items are exactly in accordance with the Kannada usage which does not suit the Hindi constructions. Such forms are unacceptable to the native speakers of Hindi. However, the meaning implied in such items is understandable to them. For example,

1. ªÉ½þ Eò½þEò®ú ¨É½þÉ®úÉxÉÒ xÉä ºÉ¦ÉÒ ±ÉÉäMÉÉå EòÉä +{ÉxÉÒ "ÉÖ¦ÉEòɨÉxÉÉBÄ ¤ÉiɱÉÉ<Ç
--- nÖùMÉÉÇnùɺÉ, {ÉÞ. 83

2. ¤ÉÉnù"Éɽþ xÉä +É{ÉEòÉä ºÉ±ÉÉ¨É ¤ÉiÉɪÉÉ ½èþ
--- nÖùMÉÉÇnùɺÉ, {ÉÞ. 83

The correct forms of the above examples are:

1. ªÉ½þ ¤ÉÉnù"ɽþ ¨É½þÉ®úÉxÉÒ xÉä ºÉ¦ÉÒ ±ÉÉäMÉÉå EòÉä +{ÉxÉÒ "ÉÖ¦ÉEòɨÉxÉÉBÄ nùÓ*

2. ¤ÉÉnù"Éɽþ xÉä +É{ÉEòÉä ºÉ±ÉÉ¨É ‡EòªÉÉ (½èþ)

Loan Translation:

Expressions which are typical in Kannada (e.g. abuses, curses, etc.) are found to be translated from Kannada to Hindi by KH bilinguals while writing/speaking in Hindi. Such items are instances of 'Loan Translations'. For example,

Abuses and curses:

1. +{ÉxÉÒ ¨ÉÉÄ EòÉ {Éä]õ VɱÉÉxÉä Eäò ‡±ÉB CªÉÉå VÉxÉ¨É ‡±ÉB

'Why did you take birth to burn your mother's stomach' in the sense of the child being too troublesome.

The above expression corresponds to the following Kannada item:

1. ‡xÉxÉ iÉÉ< ½þÉä^Âõä =‡®úºÉÉäEäò ªÉÉEäò ½Öþ‡^õnäù xÉÒxÉÖ

Addresses:

1. ¸ÉҨɇiÉ/¸ÉҪɴɇ®úMÉä ºÉ¨ÉÉxÉÖ®úÉ±É ...............EòÒ ºÉä´ÉÉ ¨Éå
in the case of elderly women whose husbands are alive,

2. ¸ÉÒªÉÖiÉ ............... EòÒ ºÉä´ÉÉ ¨Éå
in the case of males.

These expressions correspond to the following Kannada items:

1. ¸ÉҨɇiÉ/¸ÉҪɴɇ®úMÉä ºÉ¨ÉÉxÉÖ®úɱÉ............... +´É‡®úMÉä

2. ‡¸ÉªÉÖiÉ ............... +´É‡®úMÉä

Blessings and flattery:

1. iÉä®äú ¨ÉÖĽþ ¨Éå nÚùvÉ-"ÉCEò®ú b÷ɱÉÉ VÉÉB

'may milk and sugar be put in your mouth'

2. +É{É Eäò {Éè®úÉéä ¨Éå {Éc÷Eò®ú ®ú½ÚÄþMÉÉ
'I will live at your feet'

The above examples correspond to the following items in Kannada:
1. ‡xÉxÉ ¤ÉɪÉα±É ½þɱÉÖ-ºÉCEò®äú ½þÉEò
2. ‡xÉ¨É {ÉÉnùjÉ ‡¤É‡qùÌiɇxÉ

In addition to the above, 'doublets' or 'echo words' transferred from Kannada to KH result in unacceptable forms for the SH speakers. For example,

+ÉVÉ-‡nùxÉ, ºÉɨÉÉxÉ-ºÉ®ÆúVÉɨÉ, {ÉÉ{É-VÉx¨É

Use of Emphatic Particle 'iÉÉê'

From the stylistic point of view, it is observed that the emphatic particle iÉÉä is unnecessarily used in a number of places in KH. This is a very prominent feature in KH. Some of these uses may be due to the particle -o: in Kannada used in similar contexts.

For example:

1. MÉMÉÉ´ÉiÉÒ iÉÉä +É®úEò®úxÉ EòÉä +{ÉxÉä Eò¤VÉä ¨Éå ®úºÉ ºÉEòÒ
--- nÖùMÉÉÇnùɺÉ, {ÉÞ. 7

2. EÞò¹hÉ ¤Éɽþ®ú ºÉä iÉÉä "ÉÒ±ÉÉä±É Eäò °ü{É ¨Éå ‡nùJÉÉ<Ç näùxÉä {É®ú ¦ÉÒ ªÉÉäMÉÒ…É®ú lÉÉ
--- EÞò¹hɨÉÚÌiÉ, {ÉÞ. 483

3. ´É½þ iÉÉä MÉÖ±ÉɤÉ˺ɽþ lÉÉ
--- nÖùMÉÉÇnùɺÉ, {ÉÞ. 60

Conclusion:

In conclusion the following features may be considered characteristic of Kannada-Hindi.

1. In the phonemic pattern, two types of substitution take place: (a) arising out of speaking in the way the sound is represented in the script (eye dialects) and (b) while Hindi has taken one pattern of pronunciation for the Sanskrit loan words, Kannada has another.

2. Tense, Number, Gender and Person concord is not maintained.

3. Items belonging to neuter gender in Kannada are classified under masculine and feminine genders in KH at random and Hindi system is not observed by KH bilinguals.

4. The postposition xÉä is dropped in a number of instances where it is necessary and is used in wrong places. This is due to the fact that in Dravidian languages a subject never takes a postposition or a case marker while in Hindi, depending upon the type of the verbal construction and tense of the verb, subject may have some postpositions.

5. Proper word order is not maintained. In some cases, it appears that this is due to the literal, word by word, translation from the mother-tongue.

6. Due to certain regional expressions, some items result in unusual/unacceptable expressions to SH speakers.

Phonemic chart of Kannada and Hindi

Vowels:

i i: i u u:
Kannada + + + + +
Hindi + + - + +

e e: o o:
Kannada + + - + + + -
Hindi - + + - - + +

æ a a:
Kannada + + + +
Hindi - + + +

Consonants:

p t t? c k h
Kannada + + + + + +
Hindi + + + + + +

B d d? j g
Kannada + + + + +
Hindi + + + + +

f s s? š
Kannada + + + +
Hindi + + + +

m n n? ´
Kannada + + + +
Hindi + + + +

v l l? y w
Kannada + + + + -
Hindi - + - + +

r
Kannada +
Hindi +